UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


educational 

EDITED  BY  HENRY  SUZZALLO 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY   OF  WASHINGTON,   SEATTLE 

THE  OBSERVATION  OF 
TEACHING 

BY 

C.  R.  MAXWELL 

SUPERVISOR  TRAINING    SCHOOL,  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 
WHITEWATER,  WISCONSIN 


HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

BOSTON,   NEW   YORK    AND   CHICAGO 

runcreibf  prced  CatnbritJjje 


COPYRIGHT,   1917,  BY  C.   R.   MAXWELL 

ALL   RIGHTS   KBSBRVBD 


t£b»  Kftertte  $rM« 

CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
V  .  S  .  A 


Education 
Library 


CONTENTS 

EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION v 

PREFACE    ri 

I.  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM  i 

II.  THE  PURPOSE  OF  OBSERVATION      ...  9 

III.  THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION    ....  19 

IV.  THE  TEACHER 33 

V.  THE  PUPILS 44 

VI.  THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 51 

VII.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  LESSON  y .     .      .      .66 

VIII.  THE  DRILL  LESSON      ^/ 73 

IX.  THE  REVIEW  LESSON    */  ,      .    78 

X.  THE  LESSON  FOR  APPRECIATION      ,/.      .    84 

XI.  QUESTIONING 91 

XII.  CLASS  MANAGEMENT 102 

XIII.  THE  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  SCHOOL- 
ROOM   107 

OUTLINE 117 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

A  SMALL  manual  on  the  observation  of  teaching 
will  be  welcomed  by  all  those  in  the  profession  of 
education  who  are  responsible  for  the  inspection 
and  the  improvement  of  the  teacher's  classroom 
work.  Superintendents,  special  supervisors,  prin- 
cipals, and  training-school  teachers  will  be  glad  to 
have  a  convenient  treatise  which  will  offer  some 
direct  aid  to  the  conscious  appreciation  of  good 
and  poor  teaching. 

As  things  are  at  present,  the  observation  of 
teaching  is  an  activity  pursued  without  much 
system.  It  is  conducted  without  adequate  pre- 
liminary or  immediate  intelligence,  and  the  judg- 
ments to  which  it  leads  are  not  subsequently 
subjected  to  much  critical  thought.  All  this  care- 
lessness must  be  corrected  if  we  are  to  have  a 
stable  method  of  improving  the  practice  of  teach- 
ing, one  free  from  dependence  on  personal  in- 
tuitions and  chance  impressions. 

Of  late  we  have  made  some  very  conspicuous 
scientific  advances  within  the  field  of  supervision. 
The  profession  has  evolved  standard  tests  of 
v 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

efficiency  in  many  subjects,  and  developed  more 
or  less  accurate  statistical  means  of  measuring 
student  achievement  under  given  forms  of  in- 
struction. Yet  no  amount  of  zeal  for  scientific 
educational  judgments  can  blind  us  to  the  fact 
that  practically  all  these  recent  contributions  to 
the  science  of  ascertaining  efficiency  are  long- 
range  methods.  However  accurate  these  may  be 
within  the  restricted  fields  they  reveal,  they  are 
never  an  adequate  substitute  for  the  intimate 
personal  observations  of  a  competent  supervisor 
who  lives  in  the  classroom  and  scans  the  whole  of 
the  educative  life  found  there.  Indeed,  our  con- 
temporaneous measurements  reveal  inefficiency 
pointedly  and  accurately,  but  seldom  do  they 
diagnose  the  causes  and  suggest  the  remedies. 
They  require  supplementation  on  the  part  of  the 
wholesome  and  sane  supervisor. 

Classroom  observation  must  be  systematic 
rather  than  impressionistic  if  it  is  to  be  valuable. 
Even  educational  officers  of  unusual  power  rely 
too  largely  upon  what  they  may  happen  to  see  in 
the  classroom,  and  what  they  may  happen  to  see 
is  determined  in  very  great  degree  by  the  partic- 
ular educational  doctrines  and  interests  they  may 
happen  to  have  in  mind  at  the  moment.  The 
antidote  is  to  be  found  in  an  increase  of  thought- 
vi 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

fulness  preliminary  to  the  actual  visiting  of  class- 
rooms, in  the  use  of  comprehensive  classifications 
of  facts  to  be  observed,  and  in  the  development  of 
a  critique  of  observations. 

The  need  of  an  adequate  preliminary  theory  of 
observation  is  clearly  brought  out  the  first  time 
that  a  normal  school  student  is  sent  to  observe  a 
lesson  in  the  demonstration  school.  He  scarcely 
knows  upon  what  to  focus  his  attention.  He  re- 
turns to  the  class  in  theory  with  a  mind  confused 
with  detail,  and  he  has  no  method  of  telling  what 
he  has  observed  save  that  of  ordinary  narration 
and  description.  In  consequence,  what  he  recites 
is  without  pedagogical  significance.  Too  fre- 
quently such  a  condition  remains  uncorrected  for 
a  long  period,  and  the  time  given  to  observation 
is  practically  wasted.  The  presentation  of  an 
outline  of  facts  to  be  observed,  with  some  dis- 
cussion of  the  same,  at  once  gives  definiteness 
to  subsequent  observations.  If  the  instructor 
shows  the  additional  wisdom  of  restricting  the 
beginner  to  a  small  number  of  factors,  the  ob- 
servations of  the  student  observer  begin  to  be 
valuable. 

Even  the  mature  and  experienced  school  prin- 
cipal finds  that  a  systematic  plan  of  inspecting  his 
school  has  great  advantages.  Ordinarily  he  is  a 
vii 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

casual  visitor.  His  moments  of  freedom  from 
office  duties  are  likely  to  cover  the  same  periods  of 
each  day.  The  classrooms  nearest  his  office  are 
likewise  favored.  He  scarcely  realizes  that  he  is 
not  covering  all  the  ground.  In  addition,  like 
every  other  mortal,  he  thinks  of  certain  considera- 
tions more  often  than  others ;  these  he  watches,  the 
others  he  fails  to  stress.  A  half-hour's  review  of  a 
chart  or  outline  of  factors  to  be  observed  at  once 
redeems  him  from  one-sidedness.  He  proceeds  to 
watch  ventilation,  the  voice  of  the  teacher,  or  the 
social  spirit  of  the  classroom  —  items  which  he 
has  overlooked  for  a  month. 

His  work  will  be  improved  still  more  if  he  re- 
solves to  specialize  on  certain  phases  for  a  given 
period,  passing  on  to  others  in  turn.  His  in- 
spection may  be  made  by  subjects  for  a  time,  then 
by  grades,  later  by  aspects  not  ordinarily  sug- 
gested by  grade  and  subject  classifications.  He 
will  be  surprised  to  note  how  much  keener  he 
becomes  in  his  casual  observations  once  he  has 
followed  some  systematic  and  specialized  method 
of  observation. 

The  manual  here  presented  will  suggest  in  a 
comprehensive  way  the  factors  which  are  to  be 
observed  in  the  classroom.  It  affords  the  basis 
for  much  careful  and  systematic  work  useful 

••* 

vui 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

alike  to  both  experienced  and  inexperienced  ob- 
servers. Its  written  aids  to  observation  which 
follow  the  more  detailed  chapters  will  be  a  con- 
crete and  direct  help,  particularly  to  beginners. 


PREFACE 

OBSERVATION  of  teaching  is  considered  an  inte- 
gral part  of  the  professional  work  in  most  train- 
ing-schools for  teachers.  Few  definite  outlines  on 
the  subject  are  available,  consequently  the  work 
varies  from  carefully  organized  courses  to  desul- 
tory observation  by  students  who  are  without 
specific  plans  or  purposes. 

This  manual  has  been  an  outgrowth  of  the 
work  in  a  course  in  observation  of  teaching,  and 
while  in  no  way  exhaustive,  the  outline  aims  to 
present  in  a  very  brief  form  the  most  pertinent 
problems.  The  manual  is  designed  for  the  use  of 
students  in  training,  for  the  use  of  teachers  who 
are  desirous  of  analyzing  the  various  elements 
in  the  teaching  process,  and  for  the  use  of  other 
persons  who  are  interested  in  the  observation  of 
teachers  at  work. 

C.  R.  M. 

WHITEWATER  WISCONSIN 
May 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF 
TEACHING 

I 

THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

MUCH  of  our  knowledge  rests  on  observation.  It 
is  one  of  the  necessary  elements  in  the  study  of 
any  science,  and  it  is  also  a  requisite  in  the  pre- 
liminary preparation  for  the  practice  of  an  art. 
Its  value  in  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  has 
long  been  recognized,  and  its  use  is  beginning  to 
be  extended  in  the  investigation  of  the  sciences 
of  the  mind.  We  appreciate  the  dangers  of  rely- 
ing on  the  testimony  of  the  senses,  but  this  error 
is  usually  caused  by  lack  of  skill  on  the  part  of 
the  observer,  by  carelessness  in  considering  the 
essential  elements,  or  through  failure  to  realize 
how  fallacies  may  arise. 

Skill  in  observation,  as  in  any  art,  is  acquired 
by  practice.  Observation  of  mental  phenomena, 
to  be  of  value,  must  be  exact  and  accurate.  It 
requires  patient  endeavor  on  the  part  of  a  student 
to  understand  the  means  employed  by  a  skillful 
i 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

teacher  to  realize  the  ends  he  wishes  to  attain  in 
any  class  exercise.  The  observation  of  children, 
in  order  to  note  their  reaction  to  mental  stimuli, 
is  valuable  to  one  who  is  to  enter  upon  the  work 
of  teaching.  The  opportunity  offered  for  obser- 
vation of  children  in  the  institutions  devoted  to 
the  training  of  teachers  indicates  the  importance 
of  the  problem. 

In  an  investigation  of  the  professional  work 
that  is  given  in  the  normal  schools  of  this  coun- 
try, the  writer  finds  that  courses  in  what  is  com- 
monly called  pedagogy  have  two  aspects;  one, 
the  theoretical  and  the  other  the  practical.  The 
former  is  called  by  many  different  names  owing 
to  the  lack  of  a  definite  and  consistent  terminol- 
ogy in  our  discussion  of  educational  topics.  It  is 
given  under  the  guise  of  Theory  of  Education, 
Principles  of  Education  or  of  Teaching,  General 
Methods,  etc.  No  doubt  the  subject-matter, 
method  of  approach,  and  the  point  of  view  may 
be  quite  the  same  in  each,  but  the  names  are  not 
indicative  of  this  fact.  Again,  the  subject-matter 
of  two  courses  called  by  the  same  name  may  be 
found  to  be  quite  different  in  their  nature.  The 
other  aspect,  the  practical,  seems  to  be  more  def- 
inite in  its  terminology,  as  when  we  speak  of 
observation  and  practice  teaching  we  have  defi- 

2 


THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

nitely  in  mind  what  is  being  attempted,  although 
the  means  utilized  for  this  attempt  may  be  some- 
what different. 

Of  these  two  elements,  practice  teaching  is 
more  nearly  standardized  than  is  observation, 
but  even  here  a  great  variation  exists  in  methods 
of  carrying  on  the  work.  The  general  plan,  how- 
ever, is  to  have  a  small  group  of  children  taught 
by  a  student  in  one  subject,  under  the  close  su- 
pervision of  a  critic  teacher.  The  length  of  time 
that  a  student  teaches  varies  from  ten  weeks  to 
one  year. 

The  results  of  this  investigation  show  consider- 
able agreement  as  to  aims  and  purposes  of  obser- 
vation; the  methods  utilized  for  realizing  them 
vary  greatly.  In  some  cases  observation  is  con- 
ducted in  organized  classes  following  a  definitely 
outlined  plan,  while  in  others  it  is  promiscuous 
and  desultory  observation  by  individual  stu- 
dents, following  no  definite  outline.  The  first 
type  of  observation  furnishes  an  opportunity  for 
a  student  to  become  acquainted  with  the  type  of 
work  he  is  preparing  to  do.  It  presents  to  him 
the  situation  in  which  he  may  see  pedagogical 
principles  applied,  and  it  furnishes  an  ideal  that 
may  be  reached  by  thoroughly  trained,  experi- 
enced persons;  that  is,  if  the  right  type  of  teach- 

3 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

ing  obtains  in  the  classrooms  observed.  The 
second  type  of  observation  should  have  little 
place  in  any  institution.  The  student  who  visits 
a  class  without  a  definite  problem  conscious  in 
his  mind  rarely  sees  what  it  is  hoped  that  he  may. 
Often  his  attention  is  focused  on  the  relatively 
unimportant  and  thus  his  observation  may  be  a 
hindrance  rather  than  a  help.  If  the  work  has  not 
sufficient  content  to  be  organized  or  outlined  as 
are  other  subjects  of  study,  it  should  be  relegated 
to  the  scrap-heap  with  other  obsolete  subjects. 
Observation  must  justify  its  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  professional  school  because  it 
meets  a  particular  need,  because  it  fills  a  real 
want,  because  it  makes  a  contribution  to  the 
training  of  teachers.  Unorganized  observation 
holds  the  place  in  educational  theory  that  excur- 
sions occupied  a  few  years  ago  in  the  teaching  of 
geography  and  nature-study.  It  was  popular  to 
take  classes  on  excursions  to  factories  and  manu- 
facturing plants,  or  on  field  trips,  to  see  land  and 
water  formations,  birds  and  trees,  in  the  hope 
that  something  might  be  assimilated  that  would 
be  of  educational  value.  When  a  justification 
other  than  a  pleasure  jaunt  was  demanded,  the 
advocates  found  themselves  in  a  predicament. 
The  result  has  been  that  we  are  conducting  ex- 
4 


THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

cursions  to-day,  but  before  we  embark  on  them, 
we  realize  that  our  plans  must  be  definite,  con- 
crete, and  worthy. 

Before  entering  upon  practice  teaching,  the 
student  should  be  equipped  with  all  the  knowl- 
edge, both  theoretical  and  practical,  that  is  at 
the  command  of  the  institution  in  which  he  is 
trained.  In  practice  teaching  the  student  will 
tend  to  acquire  the  tone  of  voice,  the  poise,  the 
habits  of  action  in  conducting  the  routine  of  the 
school,  that  will  persist  in  his  later  work.  We 
should  strive,  therefore,  to  inculcate  the  desirable 
habits  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  work.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  teachers  trained  along  the- 
oretical lines  may  be  cognizant  of  the  principles 
underlying  effective  teaching,  but  yet  revert  to 
methods  employed  by  teachers  under  whom  they 
acquired  the  knowledge  of  the  subjects  they 
themselves  are  attempting  to  teach.  Our  problem 
is  to  relate  theory  to  practice  so  that  theory  will 
function  in  controlling  and  guiding  practice. 

A  teacher  in  training  usually  has  courses  in 
psychology,  methods,  child-study,  which  treat  of 
the  instincts  and  interests  of  children,  and  the 
characteristics  of  mental  and  physical  develop- 
ment. These  courses  make  a  study  of  children 
and  of  subject-matter  from  a  theoretical  stand- 

5 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

point.  The  fundamental  facts  that  are  common 
to  all  children  can  well  be  given  in  this  way,  but  a 
theoretical  and  abstract  discussion  of  child  nature 
will  not  present  concretely  to  the  prospective 
teacher,  the  living,  virile,  red-blooded,  energetic, 
resourceful  child,  that  we  know  and  love.  Chil- 
dren are  the  material  with  which  the  teacher 
lives,  and  to  understand  and  appreciate  them, 
he  must  view  them  at  first  hand.  Froebel  gained 
his  knowledge  of  the  sacredness  of  child  life,  not 
from  treatises  about  children,  but  by  living  with 
them.  We  no  longer  give  textbook  courses  in 
science.  A  school  that  would  teach  physics, 
chemistry,  or  biology  from  a  textbook  without 
making  use  of  the  laboratory  to  explain  and 
make  real  the  phenomena  that  classes  are  study- 
ing, would  soon  fail  to  get  support  from  the  pub- 
lic. In  our  schoolrooms,  we  have  available  the 
best  type  of  laboratory,  and  it  should  be  as  im- 
portant an  adjunct  to  our  courses  in  educational 
theory  as  is  the  physics  laboratory  to  the  lecture- 
room  in  that  subject.  This  is  a  place  where  the 
arguments  of  economy  cannot  be  offered  as  an 
excuse  for  its  absence.  Separation  of  educational 
theory  and  schoolroom  procedure  has  existed  be- 
cause the  people  who  have  exploited  theory  have 
had,  in  many  cases,  little  knowledge  of  child  life, 
6 


THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

and  the  teachers  of  children  have  had  no  funda- 
mental theories  in  regard  to  their  work. 

The  apprenticeship  system  is  faulty  in  that  it 
does  not  give  and  develop  principles  that  may  be 
applied  in  changing  situations,  as  there  is  little 
attempt  to  analyze  the  process.  It  is  efficient  in 
that  it  demonstrates,  objectively,  what  is  to  be 
done  and  how  to  do  it.  To  overcome  the  evils  and 
to  retain  the  good  of  this  system,  we  are  begin- 
ning to  appreciate,  both  in  the  trades  and  in  the 
professions,  that  it  is  desirable  to  learn  the  theory 
of  the  art  or  craft  before  entering  upon  inde- 
pendent practice. 

The  teacher  needs  theory  that. establishes  an 
ideal.  He  needs  to  observe  a  skilled  teacher  to 
appreciate  the  relation  of  the  ideal  to  the  prac- 
tical, and  finally,  when  both  aspects  of  the  prin- 
ciples are  clearly  in  the  consciousness  of  the  pro- 
spective teacher,  he  is  ready  to  take  charge  of  a 
school.  If  he  is  unable  to  make  the  adjustment, 
if  his  theory  does  not  function  in  his  teaching,  if 
he  cannot  think  through  the  subject-matter  in 
terms  of  the  students  he  is  to  teach,  a  further 
apprenticeship  in  observation  of  a  skilled  teacher 
is  needed  before  independent  practice  should  be 
permitted. 

In  his  preparation  for  surgery,  the  student  is 

7 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

given  an  opportunity  and  required  to  attend 
many  clinics  where  he  observes  the  skilled  oper- 
ator. To  supplement  his  training  in  the  medical 
school,  the  young  surgeon  joins  the  staff  of  the 
hospital  in  order  that  he  may  have  further  ad- 
vantages in  observation  before  practicing  his  art 
independently.  He  serves  his  apprenticeship  in 
observing  those  skilled  in  the  art  he  wishes  to 
practice,  so  that  the  physical  lif e  of  his  patients 
may  not  be  jeopardized.  Is  it  not  just  as  essential 
that  the  mental  life  be  given  as  much  considera- 
tion as  the  physical?  If  so,  it  would  seem  that  a 
carefully  outlined  course  in  observation  should 
be  an  integral  part  of  a  teacher's  training. 


II 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  OBSERVATION 

WE  observe  the  performance  of  an  act,  either  to 
appreciate  the  skill  of  the  performer,  or  to  gain  a 
more  complete  understanding  of  his  methods  in 
order  that  we  may  be  able  to  use  them  ourselves. 
Our  pleasure  in  observing  the  skilled  acrobat, 
professional  baseball  pitcher,  or  sleight-of-hand 
performer,  is  due  to  the  satisfaction  we  derive 
from  seeing  one  who  is  master  of  the  technique 
of  the  art  he  practices.  Our  attitude  toward  an 
exhibition  of  one  of  these  arts  just  mentioned  is 
quite  different  from  that  of  a  person  who  is  en- 
deavoring to  become  proficient  in  this  art  him- 
self. We  are  interested  in  the  act  itself,  and  not 
in  the  means  by  which  the  actor  has  been  able 
to  accomplish  his  end  or  act.  The  novice  in  the 
art  gives  his  attention  to  every  movement  of 
the  skilled  performer,  endeavoring  to  discover  the 
exact  relation  that  one  part  bears  to  another,  the 
value  of  each  part  in  the  total  act,  and  the  con- 
servation of  energy  in  the  whole  process.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  is  keenly  observant  of  the  loss  of 

9 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

energy  due  to  utilizing  means  that  do  not  assist 
in  the  performance. 

There  is  the  same  pleasure  hi  watching  a  skill- 
ful teacher  at  work  that  there  is  in  observing  a 
skillful  performer  in  any  walk  of  life.  Owing  to 
the  organization  of  our  schools,  their  isolation 
and  the  few  really  great  teachers  that  we  have, 
one  rarely  thinks  of  the  school  as  a  place  where 
skilled  craftsmen  are  at  work.  Because  of  the 
nature  of  the  work,  and  the  detrimental  influence 
on  the  pupils,  the  school  will  never  be  a  suitable 
place  for  enjoying  the  exhibition  of  the  art  of  a 
skilled  workman,  any  more  than  will  the  great 
surgical  clinics.  The  work  of  the  teacher  will  be 
observed  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  novice  in 
a  concrete  way  desirable  ideals  in  the  practice  of 
his  art. 

The  skill  of  the  teacher  must  be  even  greater 
than  the  skill  of  the  worker  in  other  vocations. 
The  worker  in  all  crafts  is  reasonably  sure  of  the 
response  he  will  receive,  as  the  material  on  which 
he  works  is  incapable  of  assuming  a  variety  of 
forms.  The  problem  of  the  teacher  is  much  more 
complex,  as  he  is  confronted  by  a  group  of  chil- 
dren whose  mental  content  is  anything  but  uni- 
form. Here  we  find  the  precocious  child,  the 
indifferent,  the  indolent,  the  slow,  the  deficient, 
10 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  OBSERVATION 

the  products  of  diverse  hereditary  influences  and 
environmental  conditions.  It  requires  a  master 
mind  to  analyze  the  elements  in  such  a  situation 
and  to  anticipate  the  manifold  possible  responses. 
Fortunately,  children  have  more  common  expe- 
riences, and  the  range  in  their  ability  is  more 
nearly  the  same  than  a  cursory  glance  would 
indicate,  otherwise  the  task  of  teaching  children 
in  classes  would  be  well-nigh  hopeless. 

The  attitude  of  an  observer  toward  a  teacher's 
work  is  affected  by  his  purpose.  One  may  visit  a 
school  to  judge  the  effectiveness  of  the  proced- 
ure, to  commend  ithe  desirable  characteristics,  to 
criticize  and  suggest  means  that  would  be  more 
effective,  to  endeavor  to  find  in  the  conduct  of 
the  work  ideas  that  could  be  utilized  elsewhere, 
or  to  see  the  mode  of  activity  and  the  methods 
employed  by  a  skillful  teacher.  These  different 
attitudes  are  assumed  by  superintendents,  princi- 
pals, supervisors,  teachers,  and  students  in  train- 
ing. Superintendents,  when  not  acting  as  super- 
visors, usually  visit  a  school  with  the  attitude  of 
a  judge  to  estimate  the  worth  of  the  teaching. 
Principals  and  supervisors  should  view  the  work 
with  the  attitude  of  a  helpful  adviser  who  sees 
the  situation  in  its  wider  relationship.  The 
teacher  who  visits  another  should  do  so  with  an 
ii 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

open  mind,  endeavoring  to  find  suggestions  that 
will  be  helpful,  and  the  student  in  training  should 
have  consciously  in  mind  the  relation  between 
theory  and  practice.  Each  group  is  on  the  alert 
to  see  skillful  teaching,  and  the  questions  they 
ask  themselves  as  to  the  effectiveness  of  the 
instruction  should  be  practically  the  same. 

The  first  group, — the  supervisor,  the  superin- 
tendent, or  the  principal,  —  visits  a  class  to  see 
wherein  a  teacher  is  teaching  in  accordance  with 
correct  pedagogical  principles,  to  note  wherein 
he  is  sincere,  enthusiastic,  well  prepared,  con- 
siderate of  the  children,  sympathetic,  well  poised, 
firm.  He  notes  the  points  in  which  that  teacher 
is  strong,  where  the  source  of  his  greatest  possi- 
bilities lies,  what  his  undeveloped  potentialities 
are,  and  he  considers  ways  and  means  whereby 
the  teacher's  ambition  and  aspirations  may  be 
aroused  to  realize  his  possibilities.  The  super- 
visor must  be  judged  by  his  ability  to  develop 
and  inspire  his  teachers  and  not  merely  by  his 
knowledge  of  the  factors  that  are  involved  in 
good  teaching.  The  supervisor's  function  as  an 
inspector  has  been  emphasized  to  such  a  degree 
that  many  supervisors  are  content  to  be  inspec- 
tors of  the  teachers  and  classes  they  have  in 
charge.  They  are  satisfied  with  their  labors  when 
12 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  OBSERVATION 

they  have  passed  judgment  as  to  whether  or  not 
the  teaching  meets  with  the  standards  they  have 
established.  The  investigations  that  have  been 
made  of  the  work  of  such  school  officials  lead  one 
to  question  the  general  prevalence  of  any  stand- 
ards for  measuring  the  efficiency  of  teachers,  but 
taking  for  granted  that  norms  are  used  in  measur- 
ing efficiency,  the  teacher's  work  is  not  improved 
by  inspection. 

The  manager  of  a  department  store  does  not 
dismiss  a  salesman  even  though  his  sales  are 
not  what  it  has  been  anticipated  they  would  be 
in  that  department,  until  he  suggests  ways  and 
means  whereby  that  clerk  may  be  made  more 
efficient.  The  building  contractor  does  not  dis- 
charge his  masons  because  they  have  not  laid 
their  bricks  with  sufficient  rapidity,  but  rather 
he  suggests  ways  and  means  by  which  more  may 
be  accomplished  with  the  same  expenditure  of 
energy.  If  his  workmen  are  unable  to  act  on  sug- 
gestions to  secure  the  desired  results,  then,  and 
not  until  then,  does  he  seek  others.  Should  not 
the  administrative  officers  in  our  schools  be  as 
anxious  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  their  teachers 
the  principles  of  scientific  management  as  have 
been  the  administrative  officers  in  other  lines  of 
endeavor?  The  supervisor  should  have  a  definite 

13 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

idea  of  the  purpose  of  education,  he  should  have 
a  clear  conception  of  the  purpose  of  the  school 
under  his  charge,  and  he  should  have  distinctly 
in  mind  the  essential  elements  that  he  ought  to 
find  in  each  recitation  he  visits.  Supervisors 
under  these  conditions  are  a  help  to  their  teach- 
ers, because  they  are  in  a  position  to  point  out 
both  the  excellent  and  the  poor  qualities  in  the 
recitation.  The  teacher  in  such  a  situation  will 
be  able  to  use  this  criticism  in  improving  his 
work,  for  he  can  be  made  to  see  that  his  efforts 
have  been  at  variance  with  the  standards  of  the 
system  of  which  he  is  a  part.  Unfortunately, 
teachers  are  frequently  either  complimented  or 
criticized  without  being  given  the  basis  for  either 
judgment.  Teachers  desire  their  work  analyzed 
and  welcome  a  frank  discussion  with  one  who  is 
prepared  to  assist  them  in  their  work. 

The  second  group  interested  in  observation  are 
teachers  in  the  field.  They  feel  they  can  gain 
inspiration  and  assistance  from  observing  their 
fellow  teachers  who  are  confronted  by  the  same 
problems  that  beset  them.  The  fact  that  a 
teacher  may  be  benefited  by  such  visits,  is  recog- 
nized both  by  school  officials  and  by  laymen. 
Consequently,  we  find  many  cities  granting 
teachers  a  certain  number  of  days  each  year  for 

14 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  OBSERVATION 

the  purpose  of  visiting  schools.  The  teacher  is 
granted  his  salary  for  these  days,  and  they  are 
usually  called  "Visitation  Days."  The  teacher  is 
benefited,  no  doubt,  for  he  has  had  a  change  of 
scene,  he  has  met  new  people,  and  the  social  in- 
tercourse has  been  stimulating,  but  the  amount 
of  good  that  accrues  to  the  system  of  which  he  is 
a  part,  and  to  the  children  in  his  charge,  is  ques- 
tionable. If  he  is  a  teacher  capable  of  outlining 
the  problems  he  wishes  to  investigate,  and  if  he 
uses  his  initiative  in  adapting  results  to  his  own 
use,  such  a  visit  will  be  profitable.  However,  if 
much  good  is  to  accrue  to  a  teacher  from  visit- 
ing other  teachers,  and  observing  their  work,  he 
must,  previous  to  such  visits,  have  definitely  in 
mind  points  upon  which  he  needs  assistance. 

In  observing  a  lesson,  one  must  not  be  satisfied 
in  getting  an  impression  of  the  lesson  as  a  whole, 
nor  be  content  until  every  part  of  the  lesson  has 
been  analyzed,  to  see  whether  or  not  it  measures 
up  to  standards  in  accordance  with  correct  peda- 
gogical principles.  A  teacher  who  lacks  this  latter 
qualification  may  see  devices  that  appeal  be- 
cause of  apparent  results  when  they  are  incorrect 
in  principle,  and  the  apparent  results  may  be  in- 
adequate. Many  fads  in  education  are  due  pri- 
marily to  the  lack  of  a  critical  attitude  of  school 

15 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

officials  and  teachers.  The  vertical  system  of 
handwriting  and  the  spiral  treatment  of  arith- 
metic are  examples  of  undigested  thinking  on  the 
part  of  school  people. 

The  third  group  of  observers  —  that  is,  teach- 
ers in  training  —  is  the  most  important.  The 
child  is  the  hope  of  our  civilization,  and  if  we 
can  train  his  teacher  aright,  we  are  tapping  the 
stream  at  its  source.  This  group  observes  a 
teacher  to  see  theory  made  real  or  vital.  Teachers 
in  training  should  see  model  lessons  taught  by 
exceptionally  strong,  resourceful  teachers;  they 
should  appreciate  essential  elements  in  good 
teaching  because  of  their  courses  in  psychology 
and  education.  Such  model  lessons  observed 
should  be  measured  by  the  standards  evolved  in 
these  basic  subjects.  A  student  is  better  able  to 
apply  a  principle  of  psychology  in  his  own  teach- 
ing if  he  has  seen  it  function  in  the  work  of  a 
teacher  he  observes.  The  young  surgeon  receives 
theoretical  instruction  in  ligaturing  an  artery, 
but  it  is  not  considered  that  this  instruction  is 
adequate.  It  is  necessary  for  him  to  see  compe- 
tent surgeons  perform  the  act  before  he  is  ex- 
pected to  do  it  himself.  In  the  profession  of 
teaching  we  are  too  prone  to  take  for  granted,  if 
we  tell  a  novice  how  a  class  should  be  handled, 
16 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  OBSERVATION 

that  he  will  be  able  to  execute  in  accordance  with 
our  ideal.  We  forget  the  gap  between  theory  and 
practice,  between  the  ideal  and  the  end  accom- 
plished, between  thinking  how  and  doing.  This 
class  of  observers,  like  the  other  two  classes  dis- 
cussed, needs  a  carefully  outlined  plan  with  defi- 
nite, specific  questions  that  are  to  be  asked  and 
answered  about  the  recitation.  It  is  the  part  of 
the  teacher  to  get  the  right  perspective,  to  be 
cognizant  of  relative  values,  to  become  conscious 
of  the  great  field  of  opportunity  open  to  him. 

The  previous  discussion  has  been  based  upon 
the  hypothesis  that  observation  is  one  of  the 
essential  factors  in  the  process  of  teaching.  The 
position  has  been  taken  that  a  teacher's  work  is 
observed  by  his  superiors  in  order  that  helpful 
suggestions  may  be  given,  in  order  that  he  may 
be  able  to  render  more  efficient  service.  We  have 
assumed  that  teachers  observe  the  work  of  fellow 
teachers  to  get  suggestions  and  to  see  devices  that 
may  be  adopted  and  modified  to  improve  their 
own  work.  It  has  been  taken  for  granted  that 
students  in  training-schools  should  be  required 
to  observe  skillful  teachers  so  that  theory  may  be 
exemplified  in  practice.  The  person  who  observes 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  suggestions  needs  an 
insight  that  can  recognize  the  vital  elements,  the 
17 


THE  OBSERVATION   OF  TEACHING 

relative  worth,  the  originality,  the  initiative,  and 
the  sympathetic  cooperation  between  teachers 
and  pupils  in  every  phase  of  school  life.  The 
teacher  who  observes  fellow  craftsmen  needs  the 
insight  that  enables  him  to  accept,  adapt,  and 
adjust  the  correct  principles  that  will  furnish  aid 
in  solving  new  problems.  The  student  in  training 
needs  the  insight  that  will  enable  him  to  acquire 
such  knowledge  as  will  give  command  of  the 
technique  of  class  instruction. 


Ill 

THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION 

THE  worth  of  observation  of  fellow  craftsmen  to 
one  who  is  to  practice  an  art  must  be  judged  by 
its  influence  on  his  attitude,  ideals,  and  activity. 
For  an  adequate  appreciation  of  the  problem 
confronting  him,  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  the 
important  basic  elements  of  a  craft,  to  investigate 
whether  or  not  these  elements  can  be  seen,  and 
whether  they  can  be  viewed  in  a  perspective  that 
will  furnish  a  means  for  employing  this  experi- 
ence in  his  own  practice.  The  value  of  observa- 
tion to  the  teacher  will  depend  on  his  ability  to 
utilize  in  his  own  teaching  the  essential  factors 
that  he  has  witnessed  elsewhere.  If  we  take  for 
granted  such  ability,  it  is  only  necessary  to  point 
out  the  indispensable  principles  available  to  jus- 
tify its  worth. 

To  present  the  teacher  with  the  actual  situa- 
tion he  will  meet  upon  entering  the  service  of  the 
public  schools,  we  shall  need  to  have  him  observe 
the  typical  schoolroom,  which  will  be  something 
like  the  following:  A  group  of  about  forty  chil- 

19 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

dren  is  divided  into  two  classes  taught  by  one 
teacher,  usually  a  woman;  the  physical  features, 
seating,  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation,  are 
passable;  considerable  blackboard  space  is  avail- 
able, and  illustrative  material,  maps,  globes, 
charts,  etc.,  is  provided;  while  one  class  recites, 
the  other  prepares  the  lesson  to  be  recited  imme- 
diately; sometimes,  between  recitation  periods, 
the  teacher  spends  a  few  moments  answering 
desultory  questions.  This,  in  brief,  is  the  general 
type  of  situation  in  which  our  prospective  teach- 
ers will  be  placed.  In  many  instances,  the  condi- 
tions mentioned  would  be  rather  ideal.  In  a  few 
instances  one  will  find  them  even  better.  These 
conditions  are  not  ideal,  nor  do  they  present  the 
right  model  that  we  should  wish  imitated  by  our 
teachers;  but  they  are  facts  that  cannot  be  ig- 
nored by  institutions  that  are  training  teachers 
for  service  in  public  schools.  The  teacher  needs 
to  understand  and  appreciate  the  conditions  that 
he  will  meet  in  his  first  contact  with  his  life-work, 
and  he  is  improperly  and  inefficiently  trained  if 
all  his  observation  has  been  of  models  that  are  in 
no  way  a  replica  of  existing  situations.  Many 
training-schools  are  guilty  of  presenting  to  their 
students  a  hollow  imitation  of  the  actual  thing, 
impressing  upon  them  its  forms  without  realizing 
20 


THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION 

that  the  aid  they  are  receiving  will  be  as  service- 
able as  an  evening  gown  in  a  berry  patch.  Some 
of  our  schools,  realizing  the  futility  of  such  train- 
ing as  has  been  given  in  the  past,  are  now  pro- 
viding facilities  that  one  finds  in  a  good  public 
school.  In  this  way  students  meet  a  typical  en- 
vironment that  will  be  of  assistance  to  them  in 
interpreting  public  school  conditions. 

A  course  in  observation  that  is  an  integral  part 
of  a  teacher's  training  furnishes  a  standard  of 
excellent  work  in  an  objective  way.  A  model  is 
then  available  that  may  be  used  by  a  teacher  in 
measuring  his  own  work.  The  importance  of  a 
model  to  imitate  is  appreciated  in  all  phases  of 
mental  life.  The  child  instinctively  tends  to  per- 
form the  acts  he  has  observed  performed  by 
another.  The  acts  that  are  novel  attract  his 
attention,  and  these  are  the  ones  he  first  en- 
deavors to  make  his  own.  The  problem  in  train- 
ing children  is  to  get  the  child  to  copy  and 
emulate  the  model  that  furnishes  the  desired 
ideal.  It  may  seem  a  narrow  conception  of  edu- 
cation to  hold  that  teachers  should  acquire  a  part 
of  the  technique  of  teaching  through  imitation, 
and  it  would  be  a  hopeless  outlook  for  the  future 
generations  if  a  large  amount  of  educational  the- 
ory should  be  formulated  in  this  way.  Neverthe- 

21 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

less,  certain  ideals  will  be  better  impressed  on 
most  pupils  by  observing  correct  models.  We 
know  that  teachers  without  professional  training 
invariably  teach  as  they  were  taught.  The  model 
imitated  is  usually  the  last  or  the  most  popular 
instructor.  Sometimes  it  is  a  teacher  who  had  a 
personality  that  appealed  strongly  to  the  student 
without  any  reference  to  his  skill  as  a  teacher.  It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  teachers  with  profes- 
sional training  revert,  at  times,  to  methods  used 
in  their  earlier  instruction,  which  violated  correct 
pedagogical  procedure.  This  fact  is  an  indication 
that  example  is  a  powerful  influence  in  shaping  or 
moulding  the  work  of  a  teacher.  It  points  to  the 
fact  that  observation  of  schoolroom  work  on  the 
part  of  students  in  training  should  not  be  hap- 
hazard, but  should  be  continued  for  a  sufficiently 
long  period  so  that  correct  models  will  be  inter- 
preted in  the  light  of  educational  principles. 

The  craftsman  in  other  lines  of  human  en- 
deavor in  his  period  of  apprenticeship  studies  the 
work  of  the  masters  of  the  art  which  he  hopes  to 
practice.  The  great  painters  who  have  taught 
the  technique  of  their  art  have  first  presented  the 
fundamental  principles,  but  before  the  series  of 
lessons  was  closed,  the  student  saw  many  demon- 
strations of  the  artist's  work.  The  sculptor  dem- 
22 


THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION 

onstrates  in  his  studio  the  method  by  which  he 
secures  his  results.  In  the  practical  arts  based 
upon  a  minimum  of  theory,  the  student  is  trained 
through  doing,  having  first  observed  how  the 
thing  is  done.  Since  observation  is  an  important 
factor  in  most  arts,  should  it  be  made  an  excep- 
tion in  teaching?  It  is  sometimes  held  that  prep- 
aration for  teaching  does  not  require  training 
in  observation  as  every  aspirant  for  a  teacher's 
position  has  been  taught,  and  he  needs  merely  to 
recall  the  procedure  of  his  earjy ^experience.  It 
would  be  just  as  plausible  to  say  that  because 
a  boy  has  run  races  during  his  childhood,  he  is 
prepared  to  take  part  in  a  Marathon  race. 

The  model  classes  that  a  teacher  will  see  during 
his  period  of  training  will  be  the  standard  by 
which  he  will  judge  his  own  work.  A  model  lesson 
is  theory  objectified.  It  is  just  as  important  for 
a  young  teacher  to  see  the  theories,  which  have 
been  presented  to  him,  objectified,  as  it  is  for  the 
child  in  the  primary  grades  to  have  objects  avail- 
able when  he  is  being  taught  the  fundamental 
facts  in  arithmetic.  The  model  lessons,  which 
the  student  sees  taught  by  experienced  and  skill- 
ful teachers,  are  ideal  in  that  they  are  teyond  the 
accomplishment  of  the  novice,  but  valuable  for 
the  reason  that  they  represent  a  standard  capable 

23 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

of  accomplishment  by  an  ambitious  teacher. 
This  will  mean  that  the  teacher  who  conducts 
classes  for  the  purpose  of  demonstrating  methods 
of  presenting  subject-matter  must  be  both  skill- 
ful and  resourceful  —  skillful  because  the  tech- 
nique is  being  taken  as  a  model  which  will  be 
influential  in  forming  the  habits  of  his  class,  and 
resourceful  in  that  he  must  be  able  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  new  and  unexpected  situations  that 
cannot  be  anticipated. 

'  One  of  the  problems  that  confronts  the  teacher 
is  the  proper  organization  of  subject-matter,  and 
the  observation  of  a  teacher  skillful  along  this 
line  should  be  of  great  value  to  a  novice.  Teach- 
ers trained  in  the  higher  institutions  of  learning 
tend  to  teach  children  subject-matter  organized 
in  the  manner  in  which  it  was  taught  to  them. 
The  inexperienced  teachers  in  our  high  schools, 
fresh  from  the  university,  are  teaching  courses  in 
English,  history,  etc.,  with  the  same  organization 
that  was  used  in  these  courses  in  their  university. 
Our  elementary  schools  are  not  affected  in  this 
respect  to  such  a  degree,  but  even  here  instances 
are  not  rare  where  the  material  taught  is  not 
adapted  to  the  needs  and  abilities' of  the  child. 
The  organization  of  subject-matter  is  relative  to 
the  child  that  we  are  to  teach.  We  have  the  sci- 
24 


THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION 

entific  or  logical  organization  that  does  not  take 
into  consideration  the  experience  of  the  learner. 
McMurry  indicates  the  place  of  logical  organiza- 
tion of  subject-matter  by  saying:  "Attention  is 
called  to  these  facts  here  in  order  to  suggest  that, 
while  the  scientific  and  logical  bases  of  organiza- 
tion are  in  common  use,  neither  of  them  is  ade- 
quate as  the  main  basis  of  organization  for  a 
young  student  who  is  studying  a  subject  for 
the  first  time.  ...  It  must  be  admitted  that  they 
are  of  great  assistance  in  securing  thoroughness 
of  comprehension  by  their  revelation  of  the  re- 
lations existing  among  facts,  and  also  that  they 
classify  facts  in  a  convenient  way  for  finding 
them  later;  but  they  are  of  greatest  use  to  the 
advanced  student  who  is  already  supplied  with 
motive  and  with  standards  for  judging  worth 
and  who  has  proper  habits  of  study  already 
formed;  they  can  well  follow,  but  they  should  not 
supplant  the  psychological  basis."  l 

Owing  to  lack  of  experience  with  children,  most 
young  teachers  follow  the  scientific  or  logical 
organization  of  subject-matter.  It  is  necessary 
that  a  teacher  have  his  material  organized  before 
he  attempts  to  teach  it.  One  of  the  prerequisites 
for  students  in  professional  schools  for  teachers 

1  How  to  Study,  p.  97. 
25 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

preliminary  to  teaching  should  be  to  have  defi- 
nite problems  assigned  in  arranging  subject-mat- 
ter suitable  for  children.  The  student  needs  to 
observe  children  both  in  and  out  of  school,  to 
note  their  interests,  capacities,  and  needs.  The 
teacher  gets  the  child's  point  of  view  by  reviewing 
in  retrospect  his  own  childhood  and  by  studying 
the  children  under  his  charge.  The  teacher  who 
observes  children  closely  will  say  that  they  are 
pragmatic  in  their  attitude  toward  knowledge. 
The  child  will  study  our  shade  trees  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  enjoyment  and  value  they  are 
to  us  in  the  summer  time,  but  he  is  not  interested 
in  the  structure,  the  relation  of  various  parts  to 
each  other,  that  is,  the  scientific  classifications. 
In  geography  the  child  is  not  so  much  interested 
in  man's  response  to  his  physical  environment 
as  he  is  in  comparing  his  life  with  the  life  of  the 
people,  particularly  that  of  children  in  other 
lands.  The  organization  of  the  subject-matter 
that  appeals  to  him  and  holds  his  interest  will  not 
be  the  organization  of  the  scientific  geographer, 
but  it  will  meet  the  needs  of  the  undeveloped 
child.  The  subjects  that  are  dominantly  content 
subjects  lend  themselves  readily  to  organization 
that  appeals  to  children  in  their  immaturity. 
The  formal  subjects  also  give  a  teacher  an  op- 
26 


THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION 

portunity  to  consider  constructive  organization 
from  the  standpoint  of  motive.  The  teacher  who 
appreciates  the  importance  of  the  proper  organi- 
zation of  subject-matter  has  a  conception  that 
will  be  an  invaluable  aid  to  him  in  his  work.  This 
means,  however,  that  he  will  know  the  type  of 
material  that  best  lends  itself  to  development; 
the  portion  that  he  must  emphasize,  in  order  that 
its  relationship  to  other  fields  of  knowledge  may 
be  seen;  the  phase  of  the  work  that  will  help 
children  to  enjoy  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  in 
art;  and  he  will  need  to  make  provision  for  that 
part  of  the  subject,  which  to  be  useful  must  be 
habituated.  If  the  children  grasp  the  significance 
of  the  material,  note  the  essential  points,  see  its 
relationship  to  other  facts,  and  realize  that  when 
organized  and  classified  it  is  of  future  service, 
then  we  can  feel  that  we  have  succeeded  in  our 
aim.  Are  teachers  considering  the  importance  of 
leaving  with  the  pupils  in  their  charge  a  body  of 
organized  knowledge,  classified  according  to  rela- 
tive values,  specific  aims,  and  present  and  future 
needs? 

The  classroom  is  the  best  and  only  place  for  the 
teacher  to  study  the  responses  of  children  when 
they  are  being  taught.  Owing  to  the  faulty  or- 
ganization of  our  schools,  we  may  not  see  the 
27 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

free,  spontaneous,  joyful  expression  of  child  life 
that  we  see  in  other  environments,  but  we  see 
here  organized  activities  that  represent  the  will 
and  purpose  of  the  school.  This  is  the  plane  on 
which  the  children  will  be  met  later  and,  there- 
fore, most  attention  will  be  given  to  studying 
them  in  this  environment.  The  normal  class- 
room is  also  the  best  place  to  study  the  different 
types  of  children.  In  a  random  distribution  such 
as  we  have  in  our  public  schools,  we  shall  find  the 
dull  and  the  bright,  the  slow  and  the  quick,  the 
backward  and  the  precocious,  the  strong  and  the 
weak,  the  retarded  and  the  accelerated.  The 
novice  needs  to  see  the  slow  child  in  the  class  to 
appreciate  his  needs:  a  theoretical  treatise  on  the 
topic  does  not  do  justice  to  the  problem.  Again, 
the  novice  is  often  surprised  to  note  how  a  skillful 
teacher  adapts  the  subject-matter  to  the  major- 
ity of  the  class.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  a  few  members  of  the 
class  are  capable  of  assimilating  more  than  is 
expected  of  the  majority  of  their  fellows,  and  that 
about  an  equal  percentage  will  need  special  atten- 
tion if  they  are  to  comprehend  fully  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  lesson.  It  is  important  for  the  ob- 
server to  note  what  methods  the  teacher  employs 
with  these  two  groups,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
28 


THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION 

given  proper  consideration.  Elimination  of  waste 
in  education  will  mean  that  the  groups  at  both 
ends  of  the  normal  distribution  will  be  provided 
for  in  separate  classes,  but  we  need  to  realize  that 
there  is  no  hard  and  fast  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween any  of  these  classifications.  The  dull  and 
the  bright  pupils  grade  insensibly  into  each  other. 
The  scales  that  are  being  tested  and  used  will 
be  of  service,  in  that  we  shall  have  norms  that 
represent  standards  of  accomplishment.  In  this 
way,  we  shall  be  able  to  note  what  differences 
exist  in  a  definite  ratio. 

A  classroom  presents  the  opportunity  to  see 
theoretical  principles  made  real  and  vital.  Much 
of  our  teaching  is  abstract,  lacking  realness  and 
hence  not  serviceable  in  controlling  values.  We 
state  that  the  interest  of  all  pupils  should  be 
aroused  in  the  lesson  under  consideration.  If  this 
interest  is  not  immediate,  we  should  secure  it  by 
relating  the  facts  to  some  value  or  need  which  the 
children  feel.  We  may  see  that  such  an  interest 
may  be  fostered  in  the  number  facts  in  arithmetic 
through  the  use  of  number  in  plays  and  games, 
that  spelling  may  be  motivated  by  utilizing  the 
desire  that  the  children  may  have  to  spell  cor- 
rectly the  words  they  wish  to  use  in  writing  a 
letter  to  a  friend,  that  correct  forms  in  language 
29 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

may  be  inculcated  by  making  use  of  the  desire 
the  pupils  may  have  to  emulate  the  standard  set 
by  the  teacher.  The  way  in  which  such  illustra- 
tions can  be  made  real,  concrete,  and  objective  is 
to  see  a  teacher  work  them  out  with  a  class.  They 
will  then  become  significant  in  the  experience 
of  the  observer.  It  may  not  be  possible  for  the 
novice  to  execute  a  similar  plan,  but  he  will  have 
in  mind  a  much  clearer  ideal  of  a  process  that  has 
been  demonstrated.  Again,  consider  the  prin- 
ciple that  all  pupils  shall  be  active  in  the  recita- 
tion. How  can  the  manner  of  accomplishing  this 
aim  be  better  emphasized  than  by  watching  a 
skillful  teacher?  In  many  of  the  professional 
courses  which  teachers  pursue,  the  method  of 
presentation  is  mostly  by  lecture,  and  while  the 
instructor  is  active  the  students  are  for  the  most 
part  in  a  passive  attitude,  taking  notes  in  a  des- 
ultory way.  To  counteract  such  an  influence, 
stimulating  models  where  pupils  are  thinking 
vigorously  all  the  time  are  needed  as  a  corrective 
to  insure  effective  teaching  later. 

We  are  beginning  to  give  more  attention  to  the 
social  aspect  of  the  school.  Professor  Dewey  has 
made  the  school  conscious  of  its  functions;  con- 
scious that  it  is  not  an  isolated  portion  of  experi- 
ence, but  that  it  represents  a  real  life  situation. 

30 


THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION 

The  classroom  is  a  good  index  of  the  social  life  of 
the  school.  If  the  teacher  is  a  dictator  governing 
his  class  by  the  authority  vested  in  him  as  a 
teacher,  it  will  manifest  itself  in  the  mechanical 
responses  in  the  classroom.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  teacher  is  an  integral  part  of  the  group,  work- 
ing with  the  children  toward  a  common  end  and 
considered  by  them  as  an  inspiring  leader,  the 
responses  will  be  spontaneously  made,  childlike 
expressions.  Under  the  former  ideal  of  the  school, 
where  the  teacher  was  the  autocratic  ruler,  indi- 
viduality was  repressed,  initiative  was  destroyed, 
and  independent  thinking  was  a  crime.  The 
model  pupil  was  not  the  one  who  conformed  to 
the  conscience  of  the  group,  but  the  one  who 
could  and  would  obey  without  question  the  man- 
dates of  the  teacher.  Under  the  newer  conception 
of  the  school  the  pupil  is  guided  by  motives  that 
find  their  meaning  in  the  social  conscience  of  the 
entire  group.  Is  it  necessary  for  us  to  ask  which 
type  of  training  best  fits  the  pupil  to  take  his 
place  in  the  wider  social  environment  outside  the 
school? 

Observation  of  teaching  will  present  many 
problems  of  significance  both  to  the  novice  and 
to  the  one  who  has  practiced  the  art.  To  both,  it 
will  give  an  opportunity  to  view  the  organization 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

of  the  content  of  the  whole  school  curriculum.  It 
will  furnish  the  means  for  discovering  the  adap- 
tation of  subject-matter  which  a  skillful  instruc- 
tor makes  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  undeveloped 
student.  It  will  demonstrate  in  a  concrete  way 
the  conception  of  the  relation  between  theory  and 
practice.  It  will,  when  administered  adequately, 
give  a  true  picture  of  what  is  possible  of  accom- 
plishment in  a  good  schoolroom. 


IV 

THE  TEACHER 

THE  tribute  which  Garfield  paid  to  Mark  Hop- 
kins is  a  conspicuous  illustration  of  the  influence 
of  a  powerful  personality.  Our  continued  em- 
phasis on  methods  and  devices  that  will  be  a 
panacea  for  all  our  educational  ills  sometimes 
blinds  us  to  the  importance  of  the  teacher  as  the 
most  potent  factor  in  the  educational  process. 
"Personality  "  is  an  illusive  term,  and  it  connotes 
different  ideas  to  different  people.  One  may  say 
that  Miss  B  has  a  pleasing  personality  and  he 
may  mean  several  different  things.  However,  in 
any  case,  he  means  certain  attributes  that  are 
applicable  to  the  person  in  question,  but  they  are 
usually  complex.  He  may  mean  that  Miss  B  has 
a  sweet,  winsome  face,  that  her  features  are  cast 
in  such  a  mould  that  she  presents  a  pleasing  ap- 
pearance, that  she  has  good  manners,  is  refined 
and  cultivated,  that  her  voice  is  soft,  low,  and 
sweet,  her  enthusiasm  contagious,  that  she  is 
sincere  and  wholesome,  that  her  character  is  such 
that  makes  an  appeal,  or  that  her  general  appear- 

33 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

ance  attracts  and  holds  the  attention  of  any  one 
who  sees  her.  One  may  mean  all  these  things  and 
more.  Or  he  may  mean  only  one  certain  aspect 
in  making  the  statement  that  her  personality 
is  pleasing.  Probably  to  most  people  personality 
means  merely  good  looks,  beauty  of  form  and 
feature,  and  the  unfortunate  condition  in  the 
teaching  profession  is  that  many  teachers  are 
selected  on  this  basis  alone.  An  attractive  face 
may  hold  the  attention  for  a  moment,  but  if  there 
is  not  a  sterling  character  underneath,  the  at- 
tractiveness is  no  great  asset. 

The  test  of  the  personality  of  the  teacher  is 
his  influence  on  the  children  he  teaches.  If  he  in- 
spires the  children  so  that  they  will  perform  their 
school  tasks  cheerfully  and  well,  live  in  happy 
association  with  their  fellows,  and  feel  that  school 
is  a  place  where  they  may  express  themselves  in 
a  natural  manner,  then  his  score  in  personality 
should  be  high.  Any  teacher  who  wins  the  affec- 
tion of  the  child  is  beautiful  to  that  child.  We 
may  be  biased  in  our  judgment  of  a  person  in 
meeting  him  casually,  depending  somewhat  on 
our  attitude  at  that  time.  It  is  impossible  to  tell 
the  true  character  of  a  person  by  casual  acquaint- 
ance. We  can  learn  by  observing  the  influence  of 
a  teacher  on  a  group  of  children,  and  children  are 
34 


THE  TEACHER 

as  sensitive  as  an  adult.  They  readily  detect  in- 
sincerity, carelessness,  timidity,  egotism,  affecta- 
tion, lack  of  sympathy,  and  inefficiency  in  their 
teachers.  The  teacher  who  can  impress  the  posi- 
tive virtues  on  the  children  so  that  they  will  be 
manifested  in  life  outside  of  the  schoolroom  is  the 
teacher  who  should  be  scored  highest  in  person- 
ality. In  judging  the  personality  of  the  teacher 
we  observe,  we  should  note  the  relation  between 
the  teacher  and  pupils,  the  respect  they  have  for 
each  other,  their  cooperation,  their  unity  of  aim, 
and  the  mastery  of  the  tasks  they  have  under- 
taken together. 

"The  outward  and  visible  sign  of  an  inward 
and  spiritual  grace"  is  manifested  through  the 
teacher's  appearance,  voice,  and  manner.  To 
have  the  right  influence,  he  should  be  possessed  of 
good  physique,  in  good  health,  without  any  no- 
ticeable deformity,  should  be  businesslike,  and 
dressed  in  appropriate  taste,  and  not  in  the  garb 
that  fashion  might  require  of  its  devotees,  but  in 
the  dress  that  the  conventional  American  feels  is 
suitable  for  business  hours. 

A  teacher  with  a  pleasing,  clear-toned,  well- 
modulated  voice  possesses  an  invaluable  instru- 
ment of  control.  I  recall  a  teacher  who  could 
always  bring  his  class  to  immediate  attention 

35 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

merely  through  the  modulation  of  his  voice,  and 
the  testimony  of  his  pupils  was  that  they  en- 
joyed not  the  substance  of  what  was  said,  but 
the  music  of  his  speech.  A  harsh,  strident,  high 
voice  has  a  tendency  to  upset  a  class,  making  the 
keenly  sensitive  children  irritable,  noisy,  and  dis- 
orderly. Our  training  schools  for  teachers  place 
too  little  emphasis  upon  voice  culture. 

The  manner  of  a  person  is  usually  an  index  of 
his  station  in  lif  e,  and  the  teacher  expresses  in  an 
outward  way  his  opinion  of  himself.  His  attitude 
toward  his  work  tends  to  beget  a  like  attitude  on 
the  part  of  his  class.  The  vigorous,  well-poised, 
enthusiastic,  confident  teacher  gains/the  respect 
and  confidence  of  those  he  teaches^  whereas  the 
teacher  who  is  timid,  vacillating,  and  ^nervous 
usually  fails  to  get  active  cooperation.  Some- 
times the  casual  observer  may  be  misled  by  con- 
sidering bluster  as  vigor,  egotism  as  resourceful- 
ness, and  stolidity  as  self-control.  The  list  of 
adjectives  under  manner  are  suggestive,  and  the 
observer  should  note  others  that  would  be  suit- 
able in  describing  a  person. 

Many  people  think  that  the  teacher's  person- 
ality is  the  sole  factor  in  determining  his  worth  to 
the  community.  As  has  been  said,  this  is  a  very 
illusive  term,  and  after  the  personal  characteris- 
36 


THE  TEACHER1' 

tics  have  been  considered,  we  should  proceed  to  an 
analysis  of  the  work  to  see  what  factors  contrib- 
ute to  success.  The  personal  characteristics  may 
be  wholly  desirable,  but  if  there  is  no  dynamic 
force,  if  the  teaching  efficiency  is  low,  the  person 
would  fail  to  become  a  vital  factor  either  in  the 
school  or  community  and  hence  not  be  desirable 
as  an  instructor.  The  great  influence  of  a  teacher 
is  in  his  work  in  the  classroom  as  this,  after  all,  is 
his  particular  sphere,  and  it  is  for  his  skill  in  this 
position  that  he  is  employed.  There  are  prerequi- 
sites that  the  profession  should  demand  for  those 
entering  it,  such  as  a  good  character,  intellectual 
capacity,  preliminary  training,  etc.  They  should 
be  considered  fundamental,  but  beyond  these  the 
most  important  is  skill  in  the  classroom.  The 
teacher  needs  to  be  an  aggressive  force  in  any 
class  he  teaches  whether  it  be  in  the  primary 
grades,  in  the  university,  or  in  any  of  the  inter- 
mediary groups.  Some  teachers  interpret  ag- 
gressiveness as  meaning  to  take  the  initiative 
on  all  occasions,  repressing  the  pupils  whenever 
originality  manifests  itself.  The  teacher  of  power 
is  quick  to  seize  any  evidences  of  originality  and 
direct  them  to  constructive  educational  ends. 
We  have  little  respect  for  the  person  who  is  un- 
able to  perform  the  task  for  which  he  purports  to 

37 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

be  prepared.  This  is  as  true  of  teaching  as  of  the 
performance  of  an  acrobat. 

Unfortunately,  there  is  a  type  of  teacher  in  the 
schools,  that  follows  the  line  of  least  resistance, 
that  does  what  he  finds  easiest  to  do,  that  follows 
mechanical  routine,  that  could  not  deviate  from 
this  fixed  orbit  any  more  than  could  the  mechani- 
cal toy.  The  springs  of  his  being  seem  to  be  cast  in 
an  inflexible  mould  as  is  the  spring  that  controls 
the  motions  of  the  toy.  He  teaches  as  well  this 
year  as  last,  but  will  teach  no  better  next  year 
than  he  did  two  years  ago;  in  fact,  he  gradually 
deteriorates  with  age  as  he  does  not  have  within 
himself  the  power  to  be  rejuvenated.  It  is  this 
static  teacher  who  is  the  millstone  about  the  neck 
of  our  educational  system.  These  are  the  people 
who  should  be  discovered  in  our  training  school, 
and  guided  into  some  other  profession,  where 
their  talents  will  be  of  more  service  to  the  State. 
In  analyzing  our  teachers  in  respect  to  their 
teaching  power,  we  find  a  larger  group  neither 
among  the  dynamic  nor  static  group,  but  among 
a  group  that,  for  lack  of  a  better  term,  we  may 
call  mediocre.  If  carefully  supervised  and  di- 
rected, these  teachers  get  fair  results.  When 
problems  are  suggested  they  see  their  signifi- 
cance; when  a  new  situation  presents  itself  they 
38 


THE  TEACHER 

are  able  to  recognize  familiar  factors,  and  to  meet 
it  by  relating  it  to  previous  experience.  They 
are  not  people  we  would  choose  to  furnish  an  ideal 
solution  to  a  problem,  but  we  are,  nevertheless, 
assured  that  they  will  not  go  very  far  astray. 
They  do  not  see  new  problems  that  require  great 
initiative,  that  require  great  resourcefulness,  or 
that  require  independence  in  thinking,  but  they 
are  able  to  aid  in  working  out  theories  which  are 
elaborated  by  other  people  with  greater  construc- 
tive ability.  This  is  the  type  that  we  need  to 
reckon  with  as  the  predominating  element  in  our 
schools,  as  in  all  phases  of  life  they  comprise  by 
far  the  largest  group.  Our  aim  should  be  to  in- 
crease the  number  in  the  higher  mode,  to  elim- 
inate all  in  the  lower.  It  is  desirable  to  do  this  in 
all  phases  of  our  civilization,  but  it  is  especially 
necessary  in  the  group  that  is  differentiated  to 
take  charge  of  the  training  of  our  future  citizens. 
The  caliber  of  our  teachers  is,  however,  much  in 
advance  of  our  ideals  of  social  service,  and  our 
opportunity  for  a  superior  product  in  the  profes- 
sion will  come  only  through  raising  our  general 
ideas  of  social  efficiency. 

The  importance  of  the  school  as  a  social  insti- 
tution is  coming  to  be  realized.  With  an  increas- 
ing emphasis  on  this  phase  of  the  school's  duty, 

39 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

the  teacher's  problems  of  necessity  increase  in 
importance.  His  influence  both  on  his  pupils  and 
in  the  community  must  be  investigated  in  order 
to  give  a  just  estimate  of  the  worth  of  his  serv- 
ices. If  the  school  is  to  exert  the  most  desirable 
influence  on  its  students,  a  spirit  of  cooperation 
must  exist.  The  students  must  feel  that  the 
school  exists  for  the  development  of  the  social 
group.  They  must  have  respect  for  authority, 
but  this  authority  must  be  the  will  of  the  social 
group  rather  than  the  arbitrary  wish  of  an  indi- 
vidual. Discipline  will  be  administered  from  this 
standpoint.  A  person  who  does  not  conform  to 
the  group  consciousness  must  be  made  to  feel 
that  he  is  out  of  harmony  with  the  purpose  that 
prevails.  The  ideals  should  be  those  of  social 
service,  and  he  is  of  greatest  service  who  makes 
the  greatest  contribution.  This  does  not  pre- 
clude the  ideal  of  personal  efficiency,  as  personal 
efficiency  finds  its  interpretation  only  through 
participation  with  the  others  of  his  group.  The 
relation  of  the  parents  to  the  school  will  reflect 
to  a  great  degree  the  ideals  of  the  teachers  in 
service.  Again,  the  attitude  of  the  parents  will  be 
reflected  in  the  work  in  the  schools.  The  teacher 
should  endeavor  to  have  the  patrons  feel  that  the 
school  and  home  are  institutions  in  a  larger  social 
40 


THE  TEACHER 

whole;  that  each  has  its  specific  tasks  to  perform; 
that  each  must  be  conscious  of  its  relation  to  the 
other,  and  that  through  this  relation  both  gain 
added  meaning.  This  will  mean  that  the  school 
will  be  interested  in  all  civic  movements;  that  it 
is  not  always  to  be  a  follower  or  leader,  but  that 
it  plays  its  own  part  and  takes  its  place  in  all 
active  movement  for  social  betterment.  This  con- 
ception of  the  teacher's  duty  is  from  the  ideal- 
istic standpoint,  yet  our  schools  will  never  exert 
their  just  influence  until  teachers  are  conscious 
of  the  problem.  The  efficiency  of  the  teacher 
should  be  judged  from  this  point  of  view  as  well 
as  from  the  standpoint  of  personality  or  teaching 
power. 


OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

THE  TEACHER 

I.  PERSONAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 
i.  Appearance. 

a.  Dress:  appropriate,  neat,  attractive. 

b.  Businesslike. 

c.  Facial  characteristics. 

d.  Physique:  deformities. 
2.  Voice. 

a.  Pleasing. 

b.  Well  modulated. 

41 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

c.  Harsh,  strident,  high. 

d.  Distinct,  clear. 

e.  Commands  respect. 

3.  Manner. 

a.  Vigorous. 

b.  Well  poised. 

c.  Confident. 

d.  Enthusiastic. 

e.  Self-control. 
/.  Sympathetic. 
g.  Tactful. 

h.  Quiet. 

i.  Resourceful. 

4.  Health. 

a.  Robust. 

b.  Poor  as  evidenced  by:  — 

(1)  Nervousness. 

(2)  Lack  of  energy. 

(3)  Indifference. 

lU.  TEACHING  ABILITY. 

1.  Mastery  of  subject-matter. 

2.  Selection  of  subject-matter. 

3.  Analysis  of  subject-matter. 

4.  Skill  in  arousing  thought.     >• 

5.  Skill  in  formation  of  habits. 

6.  Skill  in  assignment. 

7.  Skill  in  questioning. 

8.  Discipline. 

9.  Careful  planning. 

10.  Sufficient  preparation. 

11.  Attention  to  language. 

12.  Attention  to  individual  differences  of  pupils. 

13.  Results. 

42 


THE  TEACHER 

III.  SOCIAL  EFFICIENCY. 

1.  Influence  on  pupils. 

a.  Spirit  of  cooperation,  consideration. 

b.  Order,  how  secured? 

c.  Ideals. 

2.  Influence  in  community. 

a.  Relation  to  parents. 

b.  Relation  to  civic  movements. 

IV.  PROFESSIONAL  ATTITUDE. 

1.  Interest  in  work. 

2.  Interest  in  pupils. 

3.  Cooperation  with  colleagues. 

4.  Ability  to  make  use  of  criticism. 


V 

THE  PUPILS 

IN  our  preliminary  discussion  we  mentioned  the 
importance  of  seeing  children  at  work.  By  study- 
ing them  at  first  hand,  one  appreciates  their  abil- 
ities, attitudes,  and  interests  more  clearly  than 
when  he  considers  these  traits  in  an  abstract  way. 
Many  elements  influence  the  work  and  conduct 
of  a  group  of  students,  and  we  need  to  consider 
specific  points  upon  which  attention  should  be 
focused  in  visiting  a  classroom. 

A  study  of  the  psychology  of  childhood  will 
show  that  children  of  different  ages  must  be  ap- 
pealed to  in  different  ways.  Translated  to  the 
classroom  this  means  that  the  problem  of  teach- 
ing^ children  changes  with  their  advancement  in 
school.  An  obvious  question  will  be  whether  or 
not  methods  employed  are  suitable  for  a  partic- 
ular grade.  In  the  primary  grades,  the  children 
are  confiding,  impulsive,  and  lacking  in  social 
restraint;  their  attention  fluctuates  easily,  and 
they  soon  become  fatigued.  As  they  advance  in 
the  grades,  the  power  of  self-direction  should  in- 

44 


THE  PUPILS 

crease.  Concentration  on  a  problem  for  a  longer 
period  of  time  should  be  expected,  greater  power 
of  self-restraint  should  be  demanded,  increased 
ability  to  work  with  abstract  ideas  should  be 
anticipated,  and  less  emphasis  should  be  placed 
on  sense  material.  A  dogmatic  attitude  is  out  of 
place  with  the  child  at  any  age.  Appeal  should  be 
made  at  all  times  to  the  rational  nature. 

A  casual  observer  frequently  is  unduly  in- 
fluenced by  the  appearance  of  a  class.  It  cannot 
be  used  as  a  basis  for  conclusions  that  are  valid. 
However,  appearance  indicates,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, social  status,  nativity,  age,  etc.  In  ex- 
treme cases  it  is  an  index  of  intellectual  caliber. 
Racial  characteristics  condition  to  a  certain 
degree  the  response  that  one  may  exact  from  a 
group.  The  response  that  one  gets  from  a  viva- 
cious type  from  southern  Europe  will  be  quite 
different  from  that  of  the  well-poised  American 
child.  The  appearance  of  the  individuals  in  the 
group  will  need  to  be  considered  by  one  who  ob- 
serves a  recitation;  he  needs  to  be  careful  that 
he  is  not  making  inferences  that  would  not  be 
justified  by  a  careful  study. 

The  number  in  a  class  has  a  marked  influence 
on  the  effectiveness  of  the  teaching.  A  class  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  presents  possibilities  impos- 

45 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

sible  of  accomplishments  with  one  three  times  as 
large.  In  topical  work  only  a  limited  number  of 
students  will  be  able  to  make  contributions  to  the 
class  recitation,  and  even  if  the  mode  of  procedure 
is  by  question  and  answer  it  will  be  impossible 
to  call  on  all  members  of  a  large  class.  The  prob- 
lem of  holding  all  pupils  responsible  for  the  ma- 
terial presented  in  a  large  class  requires  careful 
planning.  To  large  classes,  teachers  are  prone  to 
present  subject-matter  hi  lecture  form,  and  this 
method  is  not  conducive  to  the  best  thought  on 
the  part  of  the  members  of  a  class.  It  is  also 
more  difficult  to  create  an  ideal  social  situation 
when  the  class  is  large.  If  to  take  an  active  part 
is  an  essential  element  in  securing  the  best  re- 
sults, a  small  class  has  the  advantage.  It  is  the 
give  and  take  among  students  that  makes  class 
teaching  more  profitable.  We  do  not  know  the 
size  of  a  class  which  presents  ideal  conditions  for 
the  highest  development  of  each  member;  the 
best  opinion  would  seem  to  hold  that  fewer  than 
twelve  or  more  than  twenty-five  students  in 
a  class  is  undesirable  for  each  to  receive  the  at- 
tention that  he  should.  This  is  a  problem  for 
experimental  study,  and  until  we  have  such  data 
teachers  must  adjust  themselves  as  best  they  may 
to  situations  in  which  they  are  placed. 
46 


THE  PUPILS 

A  close  examination  of  a  class  is  required  if  one 
is  to  discover  the  sub-  or  super-normal.  The 
average  teacher  is  able  to  discover  those  individ- 
uals at  both  extremes;  he  is  unable  to  make  a 
valid  judgment  of  the  individuals  near  the  border 
line.  The  present-day  trend  in  educational  prog- 
ress indicates  that  we  may  hope  for  definite  intel- 
ligence tests  that  will  be  of  value  to  teachers,  but 
the  tests  that  have  thus  far  been  elaborated  are 
imperfect,  and  much  more  constructive  work  will 
be  necessary  before  the  results  of  such  tests  can 
be  considered  as  final  evidence  in  the  majority 
of  cases.  At  the  present  time,  the  results  in  con- 
ventional school  work  are  used  as  a  means  for 
testing  the  intelligence  of  the  individuals  in  a 
class,  however  faulty  this  method  may  be. 

Many  cities  are  attacking  the  problem  through 
the  ungraded  room,  but  the  basis  of  selection  is 
so  unscientific  that  the  achievements  are  much 
less  than  they  would  be  if  the  plan  could  be  bet- 
ter administered.  The  movement  is  valuable,  be- 
cause it  has  aroused  the  public  to  an  appreciation 
of  the  problem  of  giving  to  the  child  who  is  not 
normal  a  type  of  education  that  will  be  condu- 
cive to  his  highest  development. 

The  response  that  one  finds  in  a  classroom 
furnishes  one  of  the  best  means  of  judging  the 

47 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

efficacy  of  the  methods  of  instruction.  These 
responses  show  also,  to  a  large  degree,  the  mental 
characteristics  of  the  class.  We  can  observe  the 
slow,  the  weak,  and  the  strong;  those  students 
who  are  working  independently  of  the  teacher 
in  advance  of  the  class;  those  who  are  finding 
the  work  ^.difficult;  those  who  are  hopelessly  in 
the ',  rear;  those  who  are  following,  through  their 
ability  to  lean  upon  others;  and  those  who  have 
ability  but  who  are  indifferent  to  the  work  of 
the  class.  The  alert  teacher  diagnoses  these  cases 
and  gives  the  best  remedy  in  her  power.  For 
many,  it  means  the  repetition  of  the  work;  it 
should  mean,  in  most  instances,  a  special  class. 
The  problem  of  retardation  is  receiving  consid- 
erable attention  in  most  school  systems,  and  the 
ungraded  room  is  the  means  most  frequently 
utilized  to  cope  with  the  problem.  A  class  may  be 
composed  of  normal  children  but,  due  to  faulty 
teaching,  only  a  limited  number  are  taking  part. 
A  teacher  who  is  working  to  secure  independence 
from  her  class  will  not  be  satisfied  unless  prac- 
tically all  members  are  actually  interested  in  the 
subject  under  discussion.  The  successful  teacher 
will  be  alert  to  discover  whether  the  child  is  tak- 
ing part  to  clarify  his  own  thinking  or  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  teacher.  The  whole  class  will 
48 


THE  PUPILS 

be  taught  that  the  fundamental  problems  should 
be  to  clarify  and  enlarge  their  knowledge  of  any 
topic  under  discussion. 

The  attitude  of  the  class  toward  the  teacher  is 
a  good  index  of  the  social  efficiency  of  the  school. 
Children  may  show  a  spirit  of  insubordination 
if  the  teacher  has  an  individualistic  attitude 
toward  his  work;  yet  a  teacher  who  has  a  fund 
of  sympathy,  tact,  and  broad  understanding  of 
child  life  will  secure  obedience,  respect,  and  good- 
will even  from  a  class  of  children  who  have  the 
influence  of  a  bad  environment  outside  the  in- 
stitution. The  attitude  of  the  children  in  the 
room  and  on  the  school  grounds  will  give  a  casual 
observer  a  fairly  good  basis  for  drawing  conclu- 
sions as  to  the  social  atmosphere  that  prevails. 
Both  the  teacher  and  the  community  should  be 
conscious  of  this  fact. 

OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

THE  PUPILS 

I.  GRADE. 

II.  NUMBER  IN  CLASS. 

III.  APPEARANCE. 

1.  Nativity. 

2.  Apparent  age. 

49 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

3.  Well  clothed. 

4.  Well  nourished. 

5.  Neat  or  unkempt. 

IV.  TYPES. 

1.  Number  apparently  normal. 

2.  Number  apparently  above  average  ability. 

3.  Number  sub-normal. 

V.  RESPONSES. 

1.  Characteristics. 

a.  Slow. 

b.  Weak. 

c.  Strong. 

d.  Impulsive. 

2.  Number  apparently  interested. 

3.  Number  actively  interested. 

4.  Number  the  teacher  questioned. 

5.  Number  asking  questions. 

6.  Number  participating  of  their  own  volition. 

7.  Number  taking  no  part. 

8.  Purpose. 

a.  To  satisfy  teacher. 

ft.  To  clarify  own  thinking. 

VI.  ATTITUDE. 

1.  Well  mannered. 

2.  Obedient,  quiet. 

3.  Disorderly,  disobedient,  noisy,  rude. 

4.  Individualistic. 

5.  Social  spirit. 


VI 

THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

BOTH  laymen  and  teachers  think  of  each  day's 
work  in  the  schoolroom  in  terms  of  lessons.  The 
emphasis  of  the  word  "lesson"  restricts  and  con- 
fines our  thinking  in  regard  to  the  broader  aspect 
of  the  function  of  the  school.  We  shall  use  it, 
however,  in  this  discussion  as  it  connotes  a  def- 
inite mode  of  procedure  in  the  minds  of  people 
when  we  are  discussing  the  work  of  the  school. 
We  shall  think  of  it  as  the  series  of  reactions  that 
one  witnesses  when  he  visits  a  class.  On  the  one 
hand  we  have  in  mind  the  teacher  and  on  the 
other,  the  pupils  and  their  relation  both  to  the 
teacher  and  to  each  other  in  getting  control  of 
the  new  experience  that  is  being  considered.  This 
procedure  will  be  analyzed  from  the  standpoint 
of  purpose,  the  means  employed  hi  reaching  the 
desired  goal,  and  the  results  obtained. 

In  our  teaching  we  wish  either  to  broaden  the 
student's  outlook  through  the  presentation  of  new 
material,  to  habituate  knowledge  already  pre- 
sented, to  reorganize  knowledge  or  experience 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

from  a  new  point  of  view  or  in  larger  wholes,  or  to 
arouse  desirable  emotional  reactions.  Each  type 
of  lesson  has  a  certain  technique  that  demands 
consideration  in  a  critical  investigation  of  the 
teaching  process.  In  a  lesson  period  one  may  find 
more  than  one  type,  but  the  lesson  as  a  whole 
should  be  dominated  by  a  conscious  purpose. 
For  example,  the  purpose  of  a  lesson  in  arith- 
metic may  be  the  development  of  the  meaning  of 
per  cent  and  yet  a  part  of  the  day's  work  may  well 
be  a  drill  on  fractional  equivalents.  Again,  one 
may  wish  to  teach  the  appreciation  of  the  poem 
"The  Night  before  Christmas"  to  a  second-grade 
class,  and  the  plan  of  presentation  will  be  the 
development  of  the  broader  conception  here  pre- 
sented with  the  child's  previous  experience  of 
Christmas  and  his  idea  of  Santa  Claus. 

Lessons  should  be  analyzed  first  as  to  purpose, 
second  as  to  the  type  made  use  of  to  gain  control 
of  this  particular  subject-matter,  and  third  as  to 
the  elements  that  we  should  find  in  a  properly 
presented  lesson  of  the  given  type,  the  particular 
pouits  of  excellence,  the  place  wherein  it  was 
inadequate,  and  the  means  that  could  have  been 
employed  to  make  it  more  efficacious.  This  last 
point  needs  especial  emphasis,  as  too  little  at- 
tention is  given  to  a  constructive  view  of  lessons 
52 


THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

observed.  A  student  who  has  been  trained  to 
make  constructive  criticisms  is  in  a  better  posi- 
tion to  consider  his  own  work  with  the  same  at- 
titude of  mind. 

The  lesson  types  are  analyzed  in  slightly  dif- 
ferent ways  by  writers  on  this  subject;  it  would 
seem  that  practically  all  types  of  instruction  are 
formulated  when  we  consider  development,  in- 
ductive, deductive,  informal;  drill;  appreciation; 
and  review.  Several  writers  include  the  recita- 
tion and  study  lesson  as  distinct  types,  but  if  we 
analyze  the  process  carefully,  we  shall  find  that 
these  two  are  rather,  as  Bagley  says,  "exercises 
involved  in  the  technique  of  using  textbooks." 

In  all  recitations  the  teacher  who  secures  re- 
sults in  the  day's  work  is  guided  by  a  conscious 
aim,  a  specific  purpose  that  serves  to  unify  and 
concentrate  the  effort  of  the  class.  It  would  seem 
that  this  point  is  so  obvious  that  it  would  scarcely 
be  necessary  to  mention  it;  after  one  has  ob- 
served much  teaching,  noting  the  aimless  pro- 
cedure of  much  of  it,  he  will  find  that  constant 
reiteration  of  this  point  is  in  order. 

The  teacher  needs  not  only  to  have  the  specific 
purpose  of  the  lesson  in  the  foreground  of  his  own 
consciousness,  but  he  must  also  view  it  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  class.  He  must  put  himself,  for 

53 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

the  time  being,  in  the  position  of  the  learner  who 
is  confronted  by  the  conditions  of  the  present 
situation.  It  is  not  always  the  person  with  the 
broadest  understanding  of  a  certain  field  of  knowl- 
edge who  is  the  most  efficient  teacher  in  this  field, 
as  oftentimes  this  may  be  a  handicap.  It  is  the 
teacher  who  has  himself  met  the  problems  in 
securing  control  of  knowledge  that  best  appre- 
ciates the  point  of  view  of  the  one  who  first  ap- 
proaches that  field.  We  realize  that  a  teacher  who 
has  struggled  to  acquire  a  language  at  the  age  of 
the  people  whom  he  is  teaching,  other  things  be- 
ing equal,  will  be  the  most  proficient  teacher  of 
languages.  Many  times  the  teacher  may  have  a 
clearly  conscious  purpose  and  fail  to  realize  it 
because  this  purpose  is  not  conscious  to  his  class. 
They  may  be  running  in  the  dark,  striking  unfore- 
seen obstacles,  for  the  lack  of  sufficient  light. 

A  clear,  definite,  concrete  aim  serves  as  a  focus 
for  holding  attention,  as  a  standard  for  the  selec- 
tion and  rejection  of  pertinent  subject-matter, 
as  a  check  for  evaluating  results.  In  observing 
a  lesson,  no  matter  what  its  purpose,  the  observer 
should  be  cognizant  of  the  teacher's  purpose,  as 
exemplified  either  through  an  explicit  statement 
or  through  a  procedure  which  shows  without  a 
doubt  a  clear,  consistent  aim. 
54 


THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

One's  success  in  teaching  is  conditioned  by  his 
preparation.  Occasionally  there  is  a  person  who 
seems  to  see  a  situation  intuitively;  the  great 
mass  of  mankind  achieves  through  patient,  ardu- 
ous effort.  A  teacher  must  plan  carefully,  seeing 
all  difficulties  that  confront  the  learner.  He  must 
view  them  with  the  attitude  of  the  one  who  first 
approaches  the  new  obstacles.  He  must  devise 
the  most  economical  means  of  overcoming  the 
handicap  that  confronts  the  layman.  No  matter 
what  the  type  of  lesson  is  being  taught,  a  suitable 
approach  is  necessary.  The  approach  or  prep- 
aration will  depend  upon  the  teacher's  purpose, 
and  we  need  to  be  cognizant  of  this  fact,  in  ob- 
serving the  teacher  at  work.  This  will  be  men- 
tioned under  different  types  of  lessons,  but  it  is 
so  important  that  it  should  be  considered  as  a 
factor  in  every  recitation. 

The  basis  for  presenting  new  experiences, 
habituating  facts,  or  securing  emotional  reaction 
is  found  in  the  relation  that  they  bear  to  other 
modes  of  experiences.  The  need  for  the  control 
of  this  new  material  must  be  felt  it  the  desired 
results  are  to  accrue.  The  elements  that  will  be 
of  assistance  in  interpreting  the  new  experiences 
should  be  analyzed  so  that  aimless  effort  is  not 
expended.  The  preparation  must  be  adequate  and 

55 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

enough  amplification  of  the  related  matter  must 
be  made  to  intelligently  understand  the  relation- 
ship. Much  of  the  work  in  preparation  is  done 
haphazardly,  but  if  the  lesson  is  to  be  seen  as  a 
unified  whole,  it  is  just  as  necessary  that  the  work 
be  logically  done  in  the  approach  as  in  the  pres- 
entation. 

The  presentation,  like  the  approach,  will  be 
conditioned  by  the  purpose  of  the  teacher.  A 
drill  lesson  needs  to  be  presented  quite  differently 
from  a  lesson  for  appreciation;  the  development 
lesson  quite  differently  from  a  lesson  for  review. 
A  teacher  may  be  an  excellent  person  to  habitu- 
ate facts,  but  inefficient  in  arousing  the  necessary 
emotional  tone  in  properly  presenting  a  lesson 
for  appreciation.  Teachers  do  not  always  realize 
their  shortcomings  in  this  respect,  and  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  supervisor  to  discuss  and  point  them 
out. 

The  approach  should  provide  for  motive  that 
will  function  in  the  presentation,  but  the  teacher 
should  be  conscious  as  to  whether  or  not  it  is 
functioning  throughout  the  lesson.  The  impor- 
tance of  motive  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  is  rec- 
ognized by  most  teachers.  Dr.  Frank  McMurry 
has  dignified  motive  by  including  it  as  one  of  the 
four  standards  he  used  in  evaluating  the  quality 
v  56 


THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

of  instruction  in  his  investigation  of  the  New 
York  City  schools.  He  made  the  following  state- 
ment: "Instruction  cannot,  therefore,  rest  satis- 
fied with  cold  facts  alone.  Its  quality  is  to  be 
measured  partly  by  its  provision  for  growth  in 
motive.  One  object  of  teaching  a  pupil  how  to 
keep  the  skin  healthy  should  be  to  arouse  in  him 
a  desire  to  obey  the  laws  of  health.  One  object  of 
teaching  him  to  play  games  should  be  to  make 
him  want  to  learn  more  games,  even  throughout 
life."  l  A  teacher  should  investigate  his  work  to 
find  whether  or  not  his  pupils  have  this  attitude 
toward  school  work. 

Instruction  that  does  not  call  forth  the  inde- 
pendence of  pupils  fails  in  its  purpose  if  self-di- 
rection is  considered  a  desirable  outcome  of  school 
procedure.  Teachers  are  oftentimes  prone  to  feel 
that  so  long  as  authority  and  responsibility  for  re- 
sults rest  with  them,  the  class  is  the  passive  agent 
to  be  moulded  as  they  desire.  If  we  believe  that 
the  mind  develops  through  its  own  activity,  the 
opportunity  for  self-expression  must  be  given.  One 
of  the  best  classes  the  writer  ever  visited  was  one 
where  the  teacher  was  acting  in  the  capacity  of 
referee  and  the  class  felt  the  responsibility  for 
carrying  on  the  work.  Recently  a  student  re- 

1  Standards  for  Instruction,  p.  2. 

57 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

marked,  "I  get  the  most  out  of  Miss  A.'s  class 
because  she  takes  for  granted  that  we  have  the 
ability  to  carry  on  the  work  ourselves."  This 
is  the  goal  toward  which  we  should  constantly 
strive. 

Presentation  without  attention  is  a  labor  of 
Sisyphus.  Attention  of  a  class  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  a  desirable  presentation,  but  unless 
it  is  secured  we  may  be  certain  that  one  of  the 
essential  requisites  is  lacking.  The  methods  of 
securing  the  attention  should  be  noted;  the  means 
employed  in  holding  it  should  be  investigated; 
and  the  educational  influence  should  be  evaluated. 
The  failure  to  secure  it  should  be  discovered,  and 
the  ways  that  this  lack  could  have  been  remedied 
should  be  ascertained. 

Children  enjoy  working  their  own  problems. 
The  two-year-old  child  prefers  to  build  his  own 
block  house  rather  than  have  it  done  for  him.  He 
will  ask  you  not  to  supply  the  word  in  the  nurs- 
ery rhyme  that  he  has  forgotten  temporarily,  yet 
how  few  teachers  act  on  the  assumption  that 
children  are  capable  of,  or  delight  in,  exercising 
this  power.  Many  times  when  they  do,  they  fail 
to  give  problems  that  are  within  the  experience 
of  the  children  they  are  teaching.  The  recitation 
should  offer  opportunities  for  clear  thinking;  the 
58 


THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

problem  must  of  necessity  be  within  the  experi- 
ence of  those  taught. 

Logically  organized  material  is  often  presented, 
but  it  lacks  significance  because  it  does  not  make 
the  right  appeal.  Again,  results  are  left  in  an  un- 
organized mass  because  no  specific  purpose  domi- 
nates the  procedure  or  because  the  importance  of 
organization  is  not  understood.  Material  that  is 
presented  demands  organization,  not  necessarily 
the  organization  of  the  trained  scientist,  but  from 
the  point  of  view  of  meeting  the  needs  of  a  par- 
ticular class.  The  organization  of  material  on  the 
maple  tree  would  not  be  the  same  in  a  class  in 
nature-study  in  the  normal  school  that  one  would 
find  in  a  fourth-grade  class;  each  organization  will 
be  equally  valuable  if  adapted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  topic  in  accordance  with  the  needs 
of  each  class.  * 

A  consideration  of  relative  values  bears  a  close 
relation  to  organization.  If  we  are  not  interested 
in  arranging  facts,  ideas,  or  principles,  in  accord- 
ance with  definite  standards,  all  material  will  be 
on  the  same  level.  If  we  aim  to  classify  our 
knowledge  in  a  proper  sequence,  we  must  give 
attention  to  values.  Some  of  the  subject-matter 
in  each  recitation  is  vital  because  of  its  broad 
significance  and  representative  character,  while 

59 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

much  is  merely  detail.  In  life  situations  it  is  neces- 
sary to  be  constantly  cognizant  of  relative  worth, 
and  the  ability  to  recognize  it  is  a  desirable  trait 
that  should  be  fostered. 

Many  opportunities  are  given  in  the  conduct  of 
a  recitation  to  make  the  work  clearer  through  the 
use  of  illustrative  material.  This  may  be  sup- 
plementing the  material  with  some  other  of  a  like 
nature  which  is  more  representative;  it  may  mean 
the  use  of  experience  from  other  sources  which 
will  make  clearer  the  point  at  issue;  or  it  may 
mean  the  use  of  concrete  material  which  brings 
ou£  in  a  striking  way  qualities  that  cannot  be 
grasped  through  an  abstract  presentation.  Prac- 
tically all  schoolrooms  are  equipped  with  black- 
boards, sand  tables,  maps,  objects,  etc.;  rarely 
are  they  used  to  best  advantage.  In  most  in- 
stances a  wide  enough  use  is  not  made  of  these 
valuable  adjuncts,  while  in  other  cases  their  use 
adds  to  the  dependence  of  the  class.  In  observing 
the  presentation  of  a  lesson,  the  use  of  this  ma- 
terial should  be  carefully  investigated  and  any 
criticisms  noted. 

When  the  presentation  of  a  lesson  is  finished, 

one  should  trace  the  entire  course,  noting  wherein 

the  preparation  was  adequate,  in  what  respects 

faulty,  in  what  ways  it  lacked  definiteness,  and 

60 


THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

what  provision  was  made  for  a  proper  motive; 
how  the  pupils'  desire  for  self -direction  was  util- 
ized; what  means  were  employed  for  holding  at- 
tention and  what  point  of  view  was  the  basis  for 
the  organization  of  the  material;  how  material 
was  classified  as  to  relative  values  and  what 
means  were  employed  to  make  it  concrete. 

The  assignment  is  one  of  the  most  neglected 
factors  in  instruction,  due  largely  to  the  failure 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers  to  appreciate  its  sig- 
nificance. It  has  been  the  tendency  for  so  long 
a  time  to  view  the  recitation  as  a  place  where 
knowledge  is  tested  that  the  assignment  has 
meant  merely  telling  the  student  his  task.  The 
newer  conception  of  the  study  recitation  has 
brought  into  greater  prominence  the  importance 
of  proper  analysis  of  the  work  to  be  done.  From 
this  point  of  view  a  typical  assignment,  "Take  the 
next  four  pages,  read  from  the  middle  of  page 
thirty-five  to  the  top  of  page  forty,  work  all  the 
examples  on  the  next  two  pages,"  would  have  no 
place.  The  assignment  ought,  first,  to  present  the 
problem  that  is  next  to  receive  attention;  second, 
to  furnish  the  motive  for  pursuing  the  task;  third, 
to  clarify  the  insurmountable  difficulties  per- 
taining thereto;  and  fourth,  to  show  continuity 
of  the  plan  in  the  subject  under  consideration. 
61 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

If  we  accept  the  purpose  of  the  assignment,  we 
should  grant  that  it  ought  to  be  an  organic  part 
of  the  day's  lesson.  It  is  this  relation  that  gives 
it  meaning.  The  proper  time  to  make  the  assign- 
ment will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  subject; 
at  times  it  may  be  well  to  give  it  either  at  the 
beginning  or  the  close  of  the  recitation,  but  the 
most  vital  assignments  usually  come  through  the 
problems  that  are  raised  during  the  development 
of  the  lesson,  and  then  a  few  moments  are  taken 
at  the  close  to  summarize  the  problems  which 
need  further  investigation.  The  amount  of  time 
in  relation  to  the  whole  lesson  will  be  governed 
by  its  nature.  No  arbitrary  time  limit  can  be 
fixed.  Enough  time,  however,  should  be  given  to 
bring  clearly  to  the  consciousness  of  the  class  the 
essential  elements  that  require  further  investi- 
gation. The  assignment  that  is  confined  wholly 
to  the  textbook  rarely  provides  a  live,  vital  mo- 
tive. This  does  not  mean  the  textbook  should  be 
discarded,  but  rather  that  a  judicious  use  of  it 
must  be  made.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  impart 
the  assignment  so  that  it  will  be  understood  by  the 
whole  class.  The  test  of  the  understanding  cannot 
be  made  by  the  observer  whose  visits  are  not  con- 
secutive, as  the  development  of  the  lesson  from  the 
assignment  will  contain  the-proof  of  its  adequacy. 
62 


THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 
OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

I.  TYPES  OF  LESSONS. 

1.  Development. 

2.  Drill. 

3.  Review. 

4.  Appreciation. 

II.  AIM. 

x.  Teacher's. 

a.  Suitable  for  this  subject  and  for  this  par- 
ticular class  of  pupils. 

b.  Clear  and  definite. 

c.  Lesson  an  outgrowth. 

d.  Realized. 
a.  Pupils'. 

a.  Appreciation  of  teacher's  aim  by  pupils 

as  it  applied  to  their  own  situation, 
ft.  Represent  a  vital  problem. 

c.  Secure  their  attention. 

d.  Hold  their  attention. 

III.  APPROACH. 

1.  Related  to  the  previous  lesson. 

2.  Revival  of  past  experience. 

3.  Furnish  the  setting  for  new  material. 

4.  Purposeful,  definite,  logical. 

5.  Good  proportion  to  rest  of  lesson. 

IV.  PRESENTATION. 

1.  Justifiable  for  type  of  lesson  taught. 

2.  Require  initiative  on  part  of  members  of  class. 

63 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

3.  Hold  the  attention. 

4.  Appeal  to  instinctive  tendencies. 

5.  Pupils  respond. 

6.  Members  of  class  required  to  think. 

7.  Teaching  formal,  or  mechanical,  and  did  it 
clear  up  difficulties. 

8.  Appreciation  of  relative  values. 

9.  Use  of  the  material  in  future  situations  im- 
plied. 

10.  Individual  or  group  work. 

n.  Attention  to  individual  differences. 

12.  Motive. 

a.  Intrinsic  or  derived. 

b.  Real  or  artificial. 

c.  Function  throughout  the  entire  period. 

13.  Material  organized. 

a.  In  relation  to  the  preparation. 

b.  Final  summary. 

14.  Use  made  of  illustrative  material,  such  as 
material  brought  in  by  pupils,  museum  speci- 
mens, etc. 

15.  Use  made  of  the  blackboard,  sand  table,  and 
the  children's  constructive  impulses. 

V.  ASSIGNMENT. 

1.  The  relation  to  the  day's  lesson. 

2.  Time  given. 

3.  When  given. 

a.  At  the  beginning. 

b.  At  the  close. 

c.  Or  an  outgrowth  of  the  recitation  as  it 
proceeded. 

4.  Textbook  or  problem  assignment. 

5.  Adequate  for  pupils  to  work  independently. 

64 


THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

6.  Understood  by  the  members  of  the  class. 

7.  Evidence  in  class  that  previous  assignments  had 
not  been  understood. 

8.  Inculcation  of  good  habits  of  study. 


VII 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  LESSON 

THE  development  lesson  has  received  more  conr 
sideration  from  writers  on  methods  of  teaching 
than  has  any  other  type  of  teaching  exercise. 
The  writers  on  education  who  were  influenced  by 
the  educational  theories  of  Herbart  made  a  great 
contribution  to  educational  practice  by  making 
conscious  the  value  of  developmental  instruction. 
These  theories  made  the  inductive  type  of  devel- 
opment prominent  and  the  implication  of  this  idea 
failed  to  be  understood.  Hence  many  errors  were 
made  in  the  name  of  logical  development.  A 
reaction  from  the  extreme  position  that  every- 
thing should  be  developed  inductively  combined 
with  a  keener  analysis  of  the  teaching  process  has 
placed  the  development  lesson  in  its  true  rela- 
tionship. The  formal  steps  of  the  inductive 
method  while  improving  teaching  have  in  many 
cases  tended  to  make  it  more  narrow.  One  of  the 
best  statements  we  have  of  the  place  of  the  formal 
steps  is  given  by  Dewey:  "It  may  be  said  that 
just  because  the  order  is  logical,  it  represents  the 
66 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  LESSON 

survey  of  subject-matter  made  by  one  who  already 
understands  it,  not  the  path  of  progress  followed 
by  a  mind  that  is  learning.  The  former  may 
describe  a  uniform,  straight-away  course,  the 
latter  must  be  a  series  of  tacks  of  zigzag  move- 
ments back  and  forth.  In  short,  the  formal  steps 
indicate  the  points  that  should  be  covered  by  the 
teacher  in  preparing  to  conduct  a  recitation^  by,t 
should  not  prescribe  the  actual  course  of  teach- 
ing." *^ 

The  teacher's  skill  in  outlining  effective  tools 
in  instruction  will  be  demonstrated  by  the 
methods  used  in  developing  particular  lessons. 
A  certain  lesson  in  geography  may  be  treated 
inductively  while  hi  another  lesson  in  this  same 
subject,  the  procedure  should  be  deductive.  For 
example,  in  the  study  of  wheat  in  the  United 
States,  it  may  be  economical  to  develop  the  factor 
essential  to  its  growth  inductively,  but  when  the 
production  of  wheat  in  Russia  is  considered,  the 
principles  already  developed  in  the  study  of  wheat 
in  the  United  States  will  be  the  most  economical 
mode  of  treatment. 

In  the  inductive  lesson  the  problem  needs  care- 
ful statement.  The  pupil  needs  to  know  the 
situation  that  concerns  him.  His  experiences  that 

1  Haw  We  Think,  p.  204. 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

would  bear  upon  it  need  to  be  aroused.  He  should 
feel  that  the  solution  will  be  worth  while,  of  some 
value  when  the  result  is  obtained.  The  data 
used  must  be  representative  and  adequate.  The 
teacher  must  guard  against  presenting  data  that 
require  little  thought  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and 
again,  must  be  alert  to  see  that  sufficient  ma- 
terial is  given  to  furnish  an  incentive  for  con- 
tinued effort.  This  is  the  point  where  develop- 
mental teaching  presents  the  most  difficulties. 
A  teacher  who  has  consciously  in  mind  the  devel- 
opment of  a  generalization  may  tend  to  present 
material  that  requires  too  little  initiative  on 
the  part  of  the  class,  while  the  teacher  who  has 
thought  of  the  development  of  independence  on 
the  part  of  the  class  may  err  in  failing  to  give 
sufficient  data  to  reach  a  conclusion  that  will  be 
apprehended. 

The  deductive  development  lesson  has  re- 
ceived less  attention  relatively  than  the  induc- 
tive. It  is  complementary  to  the  inductive,  for 
the  complete  development  of  an  idea  or  principle 
includes  both  aspects.  The  principle  that  multi- 
plying the  numerator  of  a  fraction  multiplies  the 
fraction  cannot  be  considered  thoroughly  under- 
stood until  it  can  be  applied  to  any  fraction.  In 
the  deductive  lesson,  the  problem  needs  careful 
68 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  LESSON 

statement.  The  pupil  needs  to  realize  that  he  is 
confronted  by  a  situation  that  demands  investi- 
gation. He  should  feel  that  he  has  a  basis  for  his 
own  experience  but  that  considerable  effort  will 
be  required  to  answer  questions  satisfactorily. 
He  should  consider  his  data  hi  the  light  of  the 
principles  at  his  command,  make  his  inference 
and  verify  it.  The  teacher's  duty  is  to  see  that 
the  principles  necessary  for  the  solution  have  been 
rationalized,  that  the  inferences  made  are  valid, 
and  that  they  are  thoroughly  tested. 

When  we  have  developed  a  type  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  previously  developed,  we 
may  find  it  necessary  to  redevelop  a  portion  of 
the  generalization  with  which  we  are  working. 
Cancellation  based  on  the  principle  that  com- 
mon factors  can  be  taken  out  of  both  terms  with- 
out affecting  the  value  was  being  taught  to  a 
class  in  fifth-grade  arithmetic;  a  part  of  the 
class  had  difficulty  with  the  idea  of  the  common 
factors  and  this  was  redeveloped  inductively. 
Again,  there  are  few  lessons  taught  inductively 
which  do  not  depend  in  part  on  known  generaliza- 
tions. 

In  his  Methods  of  Teaching  Charters  discusses 
another  type  of  development.  He  says:  "For 
want  of  a  better  word,  we  use  the  term  'informal' 
69 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

to  indicate  those  developments  in  which  no  con- 
scious use  is  made  of  explicit  principles."1  As 
said  above,  it  is  a  matter  of  course  that  both  in- 
duction and  deduction  are  implicit  in  every  les- 
son, but  in  a  great  number  of  lessons  we  do  not 
refer  to  them  explicitly.  This  idea  has  rarely  been 
conscious  in  the  minds  of  writers  who  have  dis- 
cussed the  development  lesson,  but  when  one 
visits  classroom  work,  observes  development  les- 
sons taught,  and  analyzes  the  method  of  pro- 
cedure, he  will  find  that  the  larger  number  of 
development  lessons  are  of  this  type.  Again, 
quoting  from  Charters,  "In  literature  at  least  we 
cannot  always  develop  lessons  either  inductively 
or  deductively,  likewise  in  much  of  the  work  of  the 
early  grades,  principles  are  not  formulated.  We 
must  be  willing  to  allow  generalization  to  grow 
in  part  unconsciously."  2  This  statement  should 
be  extended  to  include  other  subjects  because 
there  are  very  few  subjects  in  the  curriculum 
which  are  taught  in  this  way.  Nevertheless,  they 
should  be  taught  so  that  the  generalization  may 
grow  rather  than  be  formulated. 

The  development  lesson  is  one  of  the  most  dif- 
ficult school  exercises  for  the  observer  to  analyze. 

1  Methods  of  Teaching,  p.  191.  *  Op.  cit.,  p.  192. 

70 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  LESSON 

This  is  due  to  its  different  aspects,  to  the  fact  that 
only  segments  are  seen  if  the  observer  does  not 
make  consecutive  visits,  to  the  fact  that  few 
teachers  are  skilled  in  its  use  and  also  to  the  fact 
that  it  needs  evaluation  in  reference  to  the  sub- 
ject-matter under  discussion. 

OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  LESSON 

I.  AIM.  (See  outline  under  Lesson.) 

II.  TYPE  OF  METHOD. 
i.  Inductive. 

a.  Problem. 

(1)  Specific. 

(2)  Desirable  type  of  treatment.  ^ 

(3)  Adequate. 

b.  Data. 

(1)  Concrete  or  abstract. 

(2)  Selection  —  representative. 

(3)  Critical  examination. 

(4)  Significance  of  comparison. 

(5)  Past  experience  utilized. 

(6)  Logical  organization. 

(7)  Sufficient  for  generalization. 

c.  Generalization. 

(1)  First  stated  by  whom. 

(2)  Complete  final  statement. 

(3)  Appreciation  by  a  few  or  all  the 
class. 

71 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

d.  Application. 

(1)  Adequate. 

(2)  Representative. 

(3)  Aim  to  habituate  or  rationalize. 

(4)  Provision  made  for  further  applica- 
tion. 

2.  Deductive. 

a.  Data. 

(1)  Source. 

(2)  Kind. 

b.  Principles. 

(1)  Selection  —  made  by  teacher  or  pupils. 

(2)  Process  of  selection. 

(3)  Logical  reasoning. 

(4)  Points  of  failure  of  pupils. 
C.  Inference. 

-      (i)  Clear. 

(2)  Justifiable. 

(3)  Who  made  it,  teacher  or  pupil. 
d.  Verification. 

(1)  Tested  adequately. 

(2)  Process  repeated. 

3.  Informal. 

a.  Problem. 

b.  Data. 

c.  Development. 

d.  Advantages  over  formal  type. 


VIII 

THE  DRILL  LESSON 

MUCH  of  our  knowledge  to  be  serviceable  must 
be  reduced  to  an  automatic  basis.  Facts  that  are 
constantly  appearing  in  various  phases  of  our 
experience  in  the  same  form  are  most  valuable 
when  immediately  recognized.  In  writing,  one  is 
greatly  handicapped  in  expressing  his  thought  if 
he  must  pause  to  attend  to  the  spelling  of  the 
words  he  uses.  In  oral  language  one  is  handi- 
capped if  he  must  stop  to  consider  the  conven- 
tional forms  of  speech.  In  everyday  experience 
in  numbers,  one  needs  to  be  both  rapid  and  ac- 
curate in  the  fundamentals  of  arithmetic.  There 
are  elements  in  practically  every  situation  in  life 
that  should  be  habituated  if  efficient  action  is  to 
follow. 

If  people  do  not  question  the  necessity  of  the 
value  of  being  equipped  with  a  sufficient  number 
of  habits  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  everyday  life, 
they  frequently  raise  the  question  as  to  the  best 
method  of  securing  the  proper  habituation.  The 
argument  is  made  by  many  that  the  time  for 

73 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

proper  habituation  is  when  the  situation  where  it 
is  needed  arises.  The  other  point  of  view  is  that 
the  habits  should  be  formed  before  the  situation 
in  which  it  is  necessary  arises.  The  beginning  of 
the  process  of  habituation  should  be  found  in  a 
case  of  need,  but  rarely  does  this  method  continue 
to  function  throughout  the  entire  process.  To 
become  facile  in  a  process  and  to  acquire  skill 
in  its  application  requires  much  emphasis.  The 
necessary  emphasis  is  secured  through  drill. 

One  of  the  essential  elements  in  drill  is  proper 
motivation.  It  is  a  difficult  problem  to  secure 
motives  that  will  appeal  to  a  student  so  that 
he  will  continue  his  task  until  it  is  thoroughly 
mastered,  particularly  when  such  mastery  means 
repetition  in  unvarying  form.  There  is  less  waste 
of  time  and  effort  under  proper  motivation,  but 
the  situation  that  demands  an  automatic  re- 
sponse must  be  mastered,  whatever  its  cost.  The 
teacher's  efficiency  will  be  judged  by  his  attain- 
ment of  his  aim  in  the  shortest  period  of  time. 
This  condition  is  best  achieved  by  motives  that 
function  throughout  the  process;  many  situations 
will  arise  where  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
to  secure  such  motives. 

The  devices  that  the  teacher  uses  to  hold  the 
attention  are  worthy  of  careful  attention  by  the 
74 


THE  DRILL  LESSON 

observer.  The  device  must  be  simple,  suited  to 
the  class,  based  on  accurate  psychological  prin- 
ciples, administered  without  waste,  and  discon- 
tinued before  it  becomes  monotonous.  Many 
devices  are  so  elaborated  that  a  waste  of  time 
ensues  when  used.  Again,  they  are  sometimes  so 
artificial  that  they  are  not  representative  of  the 
true  situation.  Both  extremes  should  be  avoided 
in  selection  of  devices.  It  is  essential  to  have 
maximum  attention  in  the  process,  and  the  de- 
vice should  be  considered  from  this  angle. 

Habituation  is  frequently  incomplete  because 
drill  ceases  too  soon.  The  first  impression  should 
be  clear  and,  logical  with  careful  presentation, 
for  the  first  impression  is  essential  in  retention. 
The  first  impression  must  be  followed  by  many 
repetitions  if  retention  is  to  be  lasting.  Drill 
should  be  continued  until  the  desired  skill  at  any 
stage  of  development  is  acquired.  It  should  not 
be  continued,  however,  beyond  this  point  as  it 
means  a  waste  of  time  and  energy.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  the  ratio  of  retention  to  time  is 
an  inverse  one  and  that  drill  will  need  to  follow 
closely  the  presentation  if  the  greatest  conserva- 
tion is  to  accrue.  Some  words  in  a  spelling  list 
require  three  times  as  much  effort  as  others,  while 
in  arithmetic,  all  teachers  know  that  some  com- 

75 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

binations  require  more  attention  than  others. 
The  ability  that  a  teacher  shows  in  this  phase  of 
work  will  be  a  good  indication  of  his  ability  to 
analyze  his  problems. 

A  drill  exercise  is  not  an  easy  teaching  exercise. 
It  requires  a  teacher  who  is  alert,  vigorous,  re- 
sourceful. It  requires  a  careful  analysis  of  the 
subject-matter,  emphasizing  the  parts  that  pre- 
sent the  greatest  difficulty,  giving  less  considera- 
tion to  those  which  are  relatively  unimportant. 
It  requires  an  insight  into  the  psychology  of  at- 
tention and  fatigue;  the  proper  selection  of  de- 
vices that  secure  the  maximum  attention  and  a 
knowledge  when  the  continuance  of  drill  will  be 
ineffective. 


OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

THE  DRILL  LESSON 

I.  AIM.  (See  outline  on  Lesson.) 

II.  MOTIVE. 

1.  Motives  available  for  this  lesson. 

2.  Motives  utilized. 

3.  Intrinsic  or  derived. 

4.  Desirable. 

5.  Function  throughout  the  lesson. 


76 


THE  DRILL  LESSON 

III.  DEVICES. 

1.  Purpose  for  which  used. 

2.  Simple  and  concrete. 

3.  Justifiable. 

4.  Suggest  other  devices  that  you  would  have  em- 
ployed. 

IV.  PRESENTATION. 

1.  Connection  with  former  lessons. 

2.  Adequate  basis  for  drill. 

3.  Suitability  of  material. 

4.  Length  of  period. 

5.  Portion  of  lesson  given  to  fixing  the  facts  by 
repetition,  by  application. 

6.  Attention   given    to    helping    children   with 
special  difficulties. 

7.  Attention  given  to  correction  of  errors. 

8.  Concrete  material  used  —  for  what  purpose. 

9.  Which  group    received  more    attention,  the 
strong  or  the  weak. 

10.  Were   new  facts  presented.    If  so,  for  what 
purpose. 

11.  Provision  for  future  application. 

12.  High  degree  of  skill  expected. 


IX 

THE  REVIEW  LESSON 

THE  purpose  of  the  review  lesson  needs  to  be 
conscious  in  the  mind  of  an  observer  if  he  is  to 
profit  by  consideration  of  a  lesson  of  this  type. 
Ordinarily,  we  find  teachers  confusing  drill  and 
review.  The  confusion  is  caused  by  a  failure  to 
analyze  carefully  the  two  processes.  Drill,  as  we 
have  discussed  previously,  is  given  for  the  purpose 
of  making  automatic  the  elements  in  knowledge 
when  the  fact  rather  than  the  process  is  the  neces- 
sary element.  Review  is  for  the  purpose  of  getting 
a  new  viewpoint,  seeing  the  valleys  through  which 
we  have  passed  from  a  higher  elevation  than  we 
have  previously  attained.  It  means  reorganiza- 
tion on  a  larger  scope  than  our  first  endeavor;  it 
means  grouping  subsidiary  points  about  a  cen- 
tral one  that  comprises  all  the  relations  which 
could  not  be  seen  until  the  subject-matter  has 
been  considered  in  its  entirety.  Knowledge  is  of 
use  to  the  student  when  it  is  organized,  and  re- 
view fails  H  it  does  not  clarify,  amplify,  and  re- 
construct our  old  organization. 

78 


THE  REVIEW  LESSON 

We  hold  facts  in  mind  through  the  number  and 
quality  of  their  associations,  and  review  fails  if 
associations  that  we  wish  on  a  final  view  are  not 
intensified.  The  proper  organization  of  subject- 
matter  is  important,  and  we  may  have  either  the 
logical,  organized  from  the  standpoint  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter itself,  without  respect  to  the  needs 
of  the  students,  or  we  may  have  the  psychologi- 
cal, which  represents  the  organization  of  subject- 
matter  from  the  standpoint  of  needs,  purposes, 
and  aims.  The  final  organization  of  the  review 
lesson  should  be  the  organization  of  the  subject- 
matter  that  will  be  of  most  value  to  the  student 
in  his  later  experience. 

The  method  of  treatment  may  be  topical, 
question  and  answer,  or  textbook.  The  topical 
treatment  gives  the  best  opportunity  for  testing 
proper  organization.  In  the  organization  of  the 
topics,  important  elements  receive  their  neces- 
sary emphasis,  while  details  have  their  rightful 
place  in  the  relation  to  facts.  The  test  of  one's 
understanding  will  be  his  ability  to  show  rela- 
tionship among  ideas.  The  person  who  has  no 
command  of  a  given  unit  of  subject-matter  will 
tend  to  have  facts  of  unequal  value  assume  the 
same  proportion.  Hills  will  be  as  high  as  moun- 
tains, and  the  ant  heap  may  be  the  residing  place 

79 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

of  a  behemoth.  The  topical  recitation  affords  an 
opportunity  for  class  discussion  and  elaboration, 
an  important  element  in  good  instruction.  Con- 
ceptions are  clarified  in  this  way,  when  this  would 
not  be  the  case  through  dogmatic  statements  by 
teacher  or  pupil. 

The  question  and  answer  method  will  find  a 
place  in  all  types  of  instruction,  but  a  minimum 
use  of  this  plan  should  be  made  in  a  review  les- 
son. Teacher  and  students  will  need  to  ask  ques- 
tions to  secure  additional  information,  to  secure 
tests  for  the  validity  of  statements,  or  to  test 
knowledge  of  facts.  The  standard  for  judging  the 
value  of  questions  in  a  review  exercise  will  be 
measured  by  the  value  of  a  question  as  a  means 
of  organizing  material. 

The  larger  number  of  lessons  that  we  see  taught 
in  our  school  are  recitations  from  textbooks.  It 
is  by  no  means  the  ideal  type;  if  conducted  with 
care  and  judgment,  it  is  of  estimable  value.  One 
function  of  the  school  should  be  to  teach  the 
students  how  to  get  information  from  books, 
and  the  judicious  use  of  textbooks  furnishes  the 
best  means  that  the  teacher  has  at  his  command. 
If  the  textbook  is  used  as  the  sole  criterion,  the 
pupil  will  gain  an  exaggerated  idea  of  the  im- 
portance of  a  textbook  and  his  initiative,  inde- 
80 


THE  REVIEW  LESSON 

pendence,  and  originality  will  be  atrophied.  The 
textbook  is  the  condensed  organization  of  topics, 
and  should  be  used  in  this  sense,  and  not  as  an 
exhaustive  treatise  of  any  subject.  The  organiza- 
tion represents  a  general  attitude  that  the  author 
has  in  mind  to  meet  many  different  situations. 
The  teacher  should  have  his  students  approach 
each  topic  with  a  specific  arm  in  view,  and  the 
organization  of  his  subject-matter  should  be  such 
as  to  realize  this  definite  purpose.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  material  in  the  text  should  not  be  ac- 
cepted unless  the  organization  happens  to  fit  the 
particular  need.  It  should  be  used  rather  as  a 
means  to  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  problems  on 
which  the  class  is  working.  If  this  attitude  is 
assumed,  one  will  not  have  a  slavish  attitude  to- 
ward the  text,  nor  will  he  have  the  attitude  that 
the  text  is  worthless,  but  rather  the  judicious 
attitude  of  mind  will  be  inculcated,  i.e.,  the  selec- 
tion and  rejection  of  pertinent  material  for  his 
purpose.  If  the  text  gives  a  condensed  organiza- 
tion of  a  topic,  it  is  necessary  that  much  ampli- 
fication be  done.  Material  should  be  collected 
from  all  sources  that  are  available  and  within 
the  experience  of  the  class.  When  this  viewpoint 
is  taken  toward  the  textbook,  the  review  of  any 
topic  will  not  depend  upon  the  organization  of 
81 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

any  text,  but  it  will  give  a  body  of  knowledge  that 
will  be  serviceable  in  other  phases  of  experience 
where  the  viewpoint  is  more  often  different  than 
alike. 

OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

THE  REVIEW  LESSON 

I.  ATM.  (See  outline  under  Lesson.) 

n.  PURPOSE. 

1.  To  reorganize  knowledge  previously  presented. 

2.  To  emphasize  material  previously  taught. 

3.  To  secure  relationship  among  ideas. 

4.  Evidence  of  confusion  with  drill. 

HI.  ORGANIZATION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER. 
i.  Logical. 

a.  In  accordance  with  the  organization  of 

the  subject. 
a.  Psychological. 

a.  In  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  pupils. 

IV.  METHOD  OF  TREATMENT. 

1.  Topical. 

a.  Adequate. 

b.  Representative. 

c.  Criticized  by  the  class. 

d.  Amount  of  time  given  to  each  topic. 

2.  Question  and  Answer. 

a.  In  detail. 

b.  Proper  organization  result. 

c.  Class  show  mastery  of  material. 

82 


THE  REVIEW  LESSON 

Textbook. 

a.  Organization  of  author  accepted. 

b.  Independent  attitude  assumed. 

c.  Amplification  of  text. 


X 

THE  LESSON  FOR  APPRECIATION 

HEYWOOD,  in  his  book  on  the  Lesson  in  Apprecia- 
tion, says  the  idea  of  the  lesson  in  appreciation 
has  been  of  rapid  and  quite  recent  growth  and 
no  single  individual  can  be  held  responsible  for 
its  inception.  One  who  examines  the  writings  of 
those  who  have  discussed  this  lesson  will  soon 
be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  assertion.  The 
eagerness  with  which  teachers  have  sought  in- 
formation on  the  subject  indicates  that  it  is  an 
idea  that  has  been  half  conscious  in  the  minds 
of  many  people.  It  is  just  as  important  to  arouse 
desirable  emotional  attitudes  as  it  is  to  implant 
habits  of  right  conduct.  The  former  being  the 
purpose  of  the  lesson  in  appreciation  makes  this 
exercise  as  justifiable  as  other  school  procedure. 
The  writers  on  this  subject  mention  three  as- 
pects—  intellectual,  social,  aesthetic.  Those  who 
emphasize  the  first  phase  consider  any  material 
valuable  that  makes  appeal  to  our  intellect  as  a 
system  of  perfect  knowledge;  thus,  we  find  the 
mathematician  has  this  attitude  toward  the  field 
84 


THE  LESSON  FOR  APPRECIATION 

of  knowledge  in  which  his  interests  lie.  The  at- 
titude of  the  devotee  of  pure  science  is  another 
illustration  of  similar  nature.  Science  makes  its 
appeal  to  him  not  because  of  its  relationship  to 
human  welfare,  not  because  of  the  value  of  its 
application  in  solving  problems  outside  his  par- 
ticular realm,  but  because  of  its  intellectual  ap- 
peal. The  value  of  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  for 
its  own  sake  is  being  questioned  to-day;  never- 
theless, there  is  a  group  to  whom  the  purely  in- 
tellectual makes  a  strong  appeal. 

The  second  phase,  the  social,  makes  conscious 
the  ideals,  the  aspirations,  and  desires  of  the  in- 
dividual in  his  relation  to  the  social  group  of 
which  he  is  a  part.  The  necessity  for  this  type  of 
appreciation  is  receiving  increased  recognition. 
This  attitude  is  depicted  in  literature,  in  geog- 
raphy, in  history,  and  in  fact  in  all  subjects  that 
are  based  on  or  get  their  meaning  from  human 
life.  The  fifth-grade  class  that  wrote  the  dialogue 
that  supposedly  took  place  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers  prior  to  the  Boston  Tea-Party, 
designed  the  costumes  that  the  different  patriots 
might  have  worn  at  this  time,  and  took  the  parts 
of  the  various  patriots,  were  in  an  attitude  to 
appreciate  the  significance  of  this  incidentin  the 
history  of  our  country.  The  desired  outcome  is 

85 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

that  the  individual  shall  appreciate  the  social 
situation  in  order  that  he  may  be  a  contributing 
member  of  the  social  group. 

The  third  phase  is  the  one  that  most  people 
consider  when  the  lesson  in  appreciation  is  men- 
tioned. The  purpose  is  to  arouse  emotions  in  the 
presence  of  the  beautiful  in  art,  music,  or  litera- 
ture. Properly  to  appreciate  and  to  secure  the 
desired  reaction  from  a  great  picture,  an  inspir- 
ing piece  of  music,  or  from  a  noble  poem,  neces- 
sitates an  emotional  tone.  A  cold  intellectual 
state  may  serve  to  analyze  the  different  elements, 
but  the  entire  being  will  not  be  suffused  with  the 
glow  that  comes  when  the  emotions  are  aroused. 
The  actor,  the  orator,  and  the  preacher  have  long 
realized  the  necessity  of  arousing  the  emotions 
of  their  audiences  if  they  are  to  get  a  suitable 
response;  the  teacher  has  been  slow  to  recog- 
nize the  fundamental  principle  underlying  such 
a  procedure.  Subjects  such  as  music,  or  litera- 
ture, are  frequently  considered  to  be  the  only  ones 
in  which  where  the  emotional  setting  is  valuable, 
but  many  other  school  exercises  offer  admirable 
opportunities  for  arousing  emotions,  before  the 
material  can  be  adequately  assimilated. 

The  teaching  of  a  lesson  in  appreciation  de- 
mands both  skill  and  imagination  on  the  part  of 
86 


THE  LESSON  FOR  APPRECIATION 

the  teacher.  In  the  preparation  for  a  lesson,  it  is 
essential  to  first  prepare  the  class  emotionally. 
The  emotions  that  are  aroused  will,  of  course, 
depend  upon  the  subject  taught.  If  it  is  a  master- 
piece of  art,  the  fundamental  principles  underly- 
ing the  work  may  need  some  elaboration.  If  it  is 
a  piece  of  music,  there  must  be  sufficient  training 
of  the  ear  to  give  a  basis  for  the  interpretation 
of  the  selection.  The  question  often  arises  as  to 
whether  teaching  should  be  direct  or  indirect. 
Should  the  beautiful  picture  or  beautiful  music 
be  left  to  make  its  own  appeal,  or  should  there 
be  an  interpretation  by  one  who  is  more  skilled 
in  the  technique  of  the  art?  If  we  believed  in  the 
indirect  being  sufficient,  there  would  be  little 
justification  for  this  type  of  lesson,  but  most 
people  will  agree  with  Heywood  when  he  says: 
"Pictures  hanging  silently  in  the  classroom  or 
music  played  without  comments  or  discussion 
have  not  much  influence  of  any  kind  upon  taste 
or  character.  If,  indeed,  they  have  exerted  a  very 
large  influence,  the  aesthetic  outlook  from  mod- 
ern nations  would  be  gloomy  in  the  extreme;  for, 
presumably  bad  pictures  and  bad  music  would 
then  also  be  tremendously  influential  on  taste 
and  character,  and  the  sights  of  our  ugly  streets 
and  the  banal  music  of  our  halls  would  be  caus- 

87 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

ing,  every  day,  a  fatal  deterioration  in  taste."  l 
The  significance  of  the  material  is  appreciated 
through  the  explanation  of  an  interpreter,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  class  must  be  actively  think- 
ing of  the  subject  in  hand.  It  is  difficult  for 
teachers  to  find  the  golden  mean  where  technique 
is  sufficiently  utilized  to  explain  and  interpret 
the  masterpiece.  Some  teachers  emphasize  tech- 
nique to  such  a  degree  that  the  exercise  is  purely 
formal  and  there  is  not  the  emotional  reaction 
that  is  the  end  point  in  the  exercise.  It  is  used  as 
an  end  in  itself,  and  their  class  is  acquiring  the 
mechanics  without  substance.  A  person  may  be 
trained  in  music  so  that  his  sensibilities  are  stirred 
by  a  false  note,  but  the  grandeur  of  the  selection 
as  a  whole  has  little  appreciable  meaning.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  find  some  advocates  of  appre- 
ciation holding  that  technique  has  no  place;  that 
the  persons  without  any  technical  knowledge  of 
painting  will  gain  as  great  an  inspiration  from 
a  masterpiece  as  will  one  who  is  skilled  in  the 
art.  This  point  of  view  is  as  faulty  as  the 
other,  where  technique  is  considered  the  prime 
element. 

The  expression  of  appreciation  is  often  misin- 
terpreted; words  are  accepted  as  a  substitute  for 
1  Lesson  in  Appreciation,  p.  196. 

88 


THE  LESSON  FOR  APPRECIATION 

an  emotional  reaction.  A  class  that  can  glibly 
imitate  terms  used  by  a  teacher  is  oftentimes  con- 
sidered the  one  that  has  appreciated  most  deeply. 
Words  of tentimes  show  how  superficially  the  ap- 
peal has  been  made.  The  child  who  has  said  lit- 
tle about  his  appreciation  of  a  great  painting,  but 
who  gazes  frequently  in  a  contemplative  way 
after  the  lesson  has  been  given,  has  imbibed  a 
much  deeper  meaning  than  the  one  who  has  glibly 
told  why  he  likes  it  though  he  later  never  gives 
it  a  passing  thought. 

The  lesson  in  appreciation  should  have  the  ex- 
cellent points  that  one  ought  to  find  in  a  good 
development  lesson.  The  teacher  should  have  a 
definite  purpose.  He  should  know  clearly  what 
he  proposes  to  accomplish.  The  children  should 
be  prepared  adequately  for  the  exercise.  In  this 
exercise,  appreciation  means  largely  the  arousal 
of  the  emotions  so  that  the  material  presented 
will  be  properly  interpreted.  The  presentation 
should  be  clear  and  definite,  giving  sufficient 
opportunity  for  the  children  to  use  their  own  ini- 
tiative. Technique  should  be  used  for  explana- 
tion and  interpretation  and  not  as  an  end  in  it- 
self. The  value  of  the  exercise  should  be  judged 
by  the  influence  that  it  has  upon  the  group;  by 
outward  expression  in  conduct  in  the  presence 
89 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

of  the  beautiful  in  nature  or  in  art,  not  through 
extravagant  expression  in  words. 

OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

THE  LESSON  FOR  APPRECIATION 

I.  AIM.   (See  outline  under  Lesson.) 

II.  PREPARATION. 

1.  Emotional  preparation  of  the  class  for  this 
lesson. 

2.  Method  of  arousing  these  emotions. 

3.  Evidence  of  overstimulation. 

4.  Evidence  of  strain. 

5.  Appeal:  intellectual,  social,  aesthetic. 

HI.  PRESENTATION. 

1.  Initiative  taken  by  the  teacher,  or  was  she  act- 
ing as  interpreter? 

2.  Significance  of  material  appreciated  by  the 
class. 

3.  Technique  overemphasized. 

o.  Used  for  explanation. 
b.  Used  as  an  end  in  itself. 

4.  Type  of  development  —  formal  or  informal. 

5.  Attention  on  direct  appreciation  or  on  indirect 
appeal. 

IV.  CONCLUSION. 

1.  Form  of  expression  of  appreciation  by  the  class. 

2.  Appreciation  the  end  point  or  by-product  of  the 
lesson. 

3.  Evidence  of  enjoyment. 


XI 

QUESTIONING 

THE  question,  as  a  means  of  imparting  knowl- 
edge, has  been  a  subject  of  considerable  interest 
to  educators  since  the  days  of  Socrates.  Since 
it  is  such  an  important  factor,  we  are  at  first 
thought  at  a  loss  to  know  why  teachers  ask  so 
many  poor  questions;  when  we  consciously  en- 
deavor to  frame  several  good  questions  that  have 
a  logical  relation  on  any  topic,  we  find  that  it 
requires  clear  thinking,  careful  planning,  and  con- 
siderable skill. 

We  may  tell  our  students  in  the  theory  and 
art  of  teaching  that  questions  should  arouse 
and  stimulate  thought;  how  many  heed  the  ad- 
monition, how  many  in  their  own  class  practice 
the  doctrine  they  preach?  If,  during  a  large  part 
of  their  school  life,  our  prospective  teachers  had 
been  exposed  to  questions  that  required  clear, 
consistent  thinking  to  be  answered  properly,  our 
problem  of  questioning  would  not  be  so  serious. 

A  question  focuses  the  attention  to  the  prob- 
lem under  consideration.  The  question  is  the 
means  of  bringing  the  specific  problem  to  con- 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

sciousness,  whether  it  is  a  mere  fact,  a  state  of 
feeling,  or  a  process  of  reasoning.  It  is  a  command 
that  requires  all  available  forces  to  be  directed  to 
the  strategic  position  in  the  lines.  A  specific  prob- 
lem holds  attention  and  gives  a  means  about 
which  relevant  material  may  be  grouped.  A 
question  that  does  not  furnish  a  center  for  fo- 
cusing the  attention  of  a  class  has  no  place  in 
instruction,  and  in  observing  a  recitation,  this 
point  should  be  conscious  in  the  minds  of  ob- 
servers in  testing  the  validity  of  the  questions. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  psychology  of 
attention  and  interest,  yet  any  factor  that  chal- 
lenges the  attention  will  foster  interest.  This 
does  not  mean  that  interest  will  continue  be- 
cause questions  are  asked,  but  it  does  mean  that 
the  teacher  has  an  instrument  in  the  questions, 
by  which  the  work  may  be  brought  to  the  pupil, 
so  that  he  realizes  that  it  is  his  problem.  When 
a  child  has  no  particular  interest  in  a  situation 
because  he  fails  to  see  the  relation  to  his  own 
problem  or  needs,  skillful  questioning  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  is  usually  the  most  potent  means 
by  which  he  sees  the  relation  to  his  own  experi- 
ence. When  the  questions  in  any  recitation  fail 
to  arouse  or  hold  the  attention  of  a  class,  the 
recitation  fails  of  its  purpose. 
92 


QUESTIONING 

Good  questions  secure  vigorous  responses  from 
pupils  through  contribution  or  by  additional 
questions.  If  the  recitation  is  to  test  the  knowl- 
edge, the  response  will,  of  course,  be  conditioned 
by  the  excellence  of  the  earlier  teaching.  If  the 
teaching  has  been  faulty  and  the  questions  suit- 
able, a  response  in  the  form  of  other  questions 
will  be  secured.  By  his  questions,  the  teacher 
stimulates  the  indifferent,  the  timid,  the  slow, 
and  represses  the  impulsive,  superficial  child. 

Independence  in  thinking  may  be  encouraged 
by  skillful  questioning.  A  child  who  is  naturally 
dependent,  if  constantly  confronted  by  questions 
that  require  him  to  use  his  own  intellect,  his  own 
experience  in  answering  them,  will,  after  a  time, 
see  that  he  has  the  power,  the  ability,  the  means 
within  himself  to  solve  his  own  problems.  A 
teacher  who  will  ask  a  class  of  children  in  a  sugar- 
beet  section  how  maple  sugar  is  made,  without 
having  carefully  taught  the  different  methods  of 
sugar-making,  does  not  contribute  to  this  end, 
but  rather  undermines  this  quality.  The  one  who 
has,  however,  related  the  process  to  the  one  they 
already  know  through  a  series  of  skillful  questions 
is  encouraging  the  use  of  their  own  experience, 
without  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  develop 
independence.  Skillful  questions  that  encourage 

93 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

the  right  type  of  response  and  that  foster  ques- 
tions from  the  class  will  help  to  clarify  knowl- 
edge. They  indicate  where  and  how  misconcep- 
tions have  arisen;  what  portions  of  the  lesson 
have  not  been  properly  developed;  in  what  way 
misunderstandings  have  arisen;  whether  indi- 
viduals or  the  class  as  a  whole  have  not  been 
thinking  clearly.  If  our  questions  serve  to  bring 
out  deficiencies  in  the  way  of  thinking  as  well  as 
deficiency  in  knowledge,  our  methods  of  instruc- 
tion will  improve. 

The  purpose  of  the  recitation  should  determine 
the  type  of  question  that  should  predominate, 
although  one  should  expect  to  find  other  types. 
Some  questions  are  found  which  have  little  place 
in  instruction,  and  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
them  so  that  we  may  know  what  prominence 
is  given  to  material  that  should  be  eliminated. 
Questions  of  fact  are  oftentimes  contrasted 
with  questions  of  thought  to  the  detriment 
of  the  former;  when  we  do  this  we  are  not 
thinking  clearly  of  the  function  of  each.  If  our 
purpose  is  to  drill  or  to  test  knowledge,  we 
must  ask  questions  that  will  elicit  the  exact  re- 
sponse which  shows  whether  or  not  the  person 
questioned  has  the  requisite  knowledge.  If  we 
wish  to  find  out  whether  or  not  a  person  knows 
94 


QUESTIONING 

the  name  of  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
we  should  ask  a  question  that  gets  the  direct 
response  rather  than  one  that  arouses  a  process 
of  reflective  thought.  One  phase  of  a  teacher's 
duty  is  to  test  the  knowledge  that  his  class  has 
of  the  topic  under  discussion. 

Few  people  will  object  to  the  statement  that 
the  thought  question  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant tools  in  instruction.  Most  life  situations  de- 
mand the  exercise  of  the  rational  powers  of  the 
individual  who  meets  it  successfully.  Therefore, 
the  school  needs  to  cultivate  and  develop  such 
ability.  The  teacher's  question  should  require  the 
pupil  to  consider  the  data  involved,  analyze  it 
into  constituent  elements,  reject  the  irrelevant, 
choose  that  which  bears  on  the  problem,  and  give 
a  statement  of  its  solution.  Thought  questions 
need  to  be  carefully  framed.  They  should  bear 
specifically  on  a  definite  problem.  The  data  for 
the  solution  should  be  available  to  the  one  ques- 
tioned. Many  thought  questions  are  of  no  value 
as  they  are  based  on  broad  generalization  beyond 
the  capacity  and  understanding  of  the  pupils  in 
our  schools. 

The  topical  question  gives  an  opportunity  for 
the  teacher  to  discover  the  ability  of  a  pupil  to 
reorganize  material  in  a  logical  manner.  Many 

95 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

topical  questions  test  only  the  pupil's  ability  to 
reproduce  material  from  a  textbook;  it  should 
go  much  beyond  this,  as  the  test  of  the  assimi- 
lation of  a  topic  in  any  subject  is  the  power 
of  reorganizing  it  from  a  different  point  of  view. 
We  are  usually  surprised  when  we  investigate 
carefully  the  limited  character  of  the  work  in  this 
respect  in  our  recitations.  In  the  upper  grades 
of  the  elementary  school  and  in  high  school  we 
usually  find  that  a  pupil's  resources  are  exhausted 
after  he  has  talked  for  a  minute  on  the  topical 
question  that  has  been  given  him.  This  is  not 
due  to  the  fact  that  he  has  not  the  ability.  It  is 
due  to  the  faulty  methods  of  questioning. 

More  questions  that  appeal  to  the  emotions 
should  be  given.  A  situation  is  rarely  appreciated 
unless  one  places  himself  in  the  attitude,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  of  the  person  whom  he  is  con- 
sidering. When  children  are  studying  the  Boston 
Tea-Party,  its  meaning  will  be  much  clearer  to 
them  if  they  are  asked  such  questions  as:  How 
do  you  think  the  patriots  felt  who  attended  the 
meeting?  What  would  be  their  attitude  in  ad- 
dressing the  assembly?  Show  how  you  think  they 
walked  on  their  way  to  the  harbor.  Questions  of 
this  type  will  tend  to  arouse  the  interest  to  a 
much  greater  degree  than  questions  of  fact  or 
96 


QUESTIONING 

those  that  merely  arouse  the  intellectual  appre- 
ciation of  the  situation.  The  teacher  who  ques- 
tions a  statement  of  this  character  should  test  it 
before  rejecting  the  idea. 

The  purpose  to  which  the  question  is  put  should 
to  a  great  degree  determine  the  type.  If  we  wish 
to  test  knowledge  that  a  student  has  of  a  subject, 
we  usually  ask  a  question  of  fact.  If  we  wish  to 
supplement  the  material  of  a  textbook,  that  is,  if 
we  wish  to  find  out  whether  or  not  the  wider  re- 
lationship of  the  subject  under  discussion  is  ap- 
preciated, we  should  ordinarily  ask  a  thought 
question.  If  we  wish  the  student  to  organize  the 
subject-matter  of  a  recitation,  we  should  ask  a 
question  that  demands  a  topical  answer.  If  we 
wish  to  quicken  the  feelings,  stimulate  the  emo- 
tions, a  question  that  arouses  the  desired  emotion 
would  be  the  one  to  demand  attention. 

Unfortunately,  many  questions  of  a  recitation 
have  little  or  no  purpose.  They  are  wholly  ir- 
relevant, useful  only  to  fill  in  the  gap  while  the 
teacher  is  getting  the  thread  of  the  organiza- 
tion himself,  but  such  conditions  are  due  usu- 
ally to  lack  of  preparation  and  they  may  be 
rejected.  Efficiency  of  instruction  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  question  should  be  judged  by 
the  absence  of  the  irrelevant  question  and  the 

97 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

judicious  use  of  the  type  in  harmony  with  the 
purpose. 

The  mode  of  asking  questions  has  an  impor- 
tance that  is  often  overlooked.  A  class  is  do- 
ing effective  work  when  all  members  are  think- 
ing vigorously  during  the  entire  recitation.  The 
method  of  questioning  that  challenges  the  atten- 
tion of  all  members  of  a  class  should  be  the  one 
utilized.  The  questions  that  are  asked  promis- 
cuously, calling  the  name  of  the  pupil  after  the 
question  has  been  given,  command  the  attention 
of  every  one.  When  the  class  does  not  know  who 
will  be  held  responsible  for  the  answer,  every  one 
needs  to  be  alert  to  the  situation,  and  cognizant  of 
its  significance.  The  objection  that  some  mem- 
bers of  the  class  will  be  called  on  very  frequently 
and  that  others  will  be  neglected  is  sometimes 
raised  to  this  method  of  questioning.  Many  times 
we  do  note  that  a  few  pupils  who  respond  readily 
receive  the  major  amount  of  attention,  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  teacher  has  no  definite  order  of 
procedure  in  mind;  this  is  easily  remedied  by 
having  the  names  on  cards  and  shuffling  the  pack 
each  time  after  all  pupils  have  been  called  for  a 
contribution.  The  mechanical  method  of  calling 
on  pupils  in  regular  order  makes  recitations  dull 
and  lifeless,  and  only  the  person  without  imagina- 
98 


QUESTIONING 

tion  will  proceed  in  such  course.  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  discuss  the  reasons  why  this  is  not  a  good 
policy  from  a  psychological  point  of  view. 

Many  times  we  are  prone  to  believe  that  chil- 
dren possess  knowledge  when  they  give  glib  re- 
sponses in  unison,  but  this  is  no  indication  that 
a  very  large  number  of  the  class  possess  much 
of  the  information  that  is  so  easily  given.  The 
folly  of  this  method  was  discovered  in  the  work 
of  Lancaster  and  Bell.  When  we  wish  to  tune  the 
ear  of  the  children  to  the  correct  enunciation  of 
a  word  it  may  at  times  be  wise  to  have  the  re- 
sponse given  in  unison.  The  rote  singing  in  the 
primary  grades  calls  for  work  of  this  kind.  When- 
ever correct  impression  of  form  is  the  requisite 
element,  or  when  one  wishes  to  secure  harmony 
of  action  as  a  unit,  then  concert  work  is  in  place. 
One  needs  to  be  on  the  alert  to  see  that  when  in- 
dependence of  action  is  necessary  that  concert 
work  has  no  place. 

The  number  of  questions  asked  in  a  recitation 
period  by  the  teacher,  as  a  usual  rule,  is  far  too 
great.  However,  this  would  be  anticipated  when 
direct  questions  or  questions  of  choice  predomi- 
nate. It  requires  very  little  time  or  effort  to  say 
yes  or  no.  A  teacher  must  be  saying  something 
to  keep  the  children  from  indulging  in  profitable 

99 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

slumber.  The  writer  visited  a  class  in  history 
recently,  where  the  teacher  was  asking  questions 
at  the  rate  of  six  per  minute.  This  is  not  an  ex- 
traordinary case,  and  can  be  duplicated  if  a  per- 
son holds  a  watch  on  the  teacher  during  the  class 
period.  There  is  not  much  opportunity  for  stu- 
dents to  think  when  they  are  subject  to  such  rapid- 
fire  questioning. 

An  observer  should  give  careful  attention  to 
the  questions  asked  in  the  recitation.  He  should 
be  cognizant  of  the  fact  that  questions  are  an 
index  of  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher.  The  factors 
in  questioning  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind. 
The  purpose  of  the  recitation  should  be  analyzed, 
and  the  questioning  should  be  evaluated  from 
this  point  of  view.  A  teacher  who  is  developing 
material  would  be  accomplishing  little  if  a  great 
majority  of  his  questions  were  those  of  fact,  and 
the  one  who  is  testing  the  results  of  teaching  a 
topic  would  be  equally  open  to  criticism  if  many 
emotional  questions  had  place.  Questioning  is 
an  art  that  is  accomplished  by  persistent,  strenu- 
ous effort,  and  the  teacher  who  is  master  of  this 
art  is  a  desirable  model. 


100 


QUESTIONING 
OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

QUESTIONING 

I.  VALUE  OF  QUESTION. 

1.  Focus  attention  on  problem. 

2.  Foster  interest. 

3.  Encourage  response  from  pupils. 

4.  Encourage  independence  in  thinking. 

5.  Clearer  thought. 

6.  Correct  misapprehension. 

II.  TYPE  OF  QUESTION. 

1.  Fact. 

2.  Alternative.  > 

3.  Direct. 

4.  Leading. 

5.  Thought. 

6.  Topical. 

7.  Emotional. 

III.  USE  OF  QUESTION. 

1.  Test  of  knowledge. 

2.  Supplement  text. 

3.  Organization. 

4.  Appreciation. 

5.  Stimulation. 

6.  Irrelevant. 

IV.  MODE  OF  QUESTIONING. 

i.  Promiscuous. 
a.  Regular  order. 
3.  Concert. 

V.  NUMBER  OF  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Relation  to  type. 

2.  Approximate  number  asked.  ; 


XII 

GLASS  MANAGEMENT 

A  TEACHER  may  have  a  desirable  personality, 
may  be  skillful  in  presenting  subject-matter,  may 
have  at  his  command  all  aids  known  to  a  modern 
schoolmaster,  and  may  be  housed  in  a  building 
that  is  the  last  word  in  school  architecture;  he 
may  fail  to  be  one  hundred  per  cent  efficient 
because  of  his  poor  methods  of  management. 
Efficiency  is  the  watchword  of  the  modern  world 
in  which  we  are  living,  applied  to  all  classes  of 
workers  from  the  humblest  street  sweeper  to  the 
president  of  the  great  transcontinental  railway 
line.  The  coal  heaver  and  the  bricklayer  are  able 
to  perform  much  more  labor  at  a  less  cost  of 
energy  than  formerly  through  a  scientific  investi- 
gation of  their  work,  through  the  elimination  of 
unnecessary  movements,  through  mechanizing 
routine,  and  through  having  materials  so  easily 
accessible  that  there  is  no  waste  motion.  If 
scientific  management  has  increased  the  efficiency 
of  workers  in  other  fields,  through  the  elimina- 
tion of  waste  energy,  should  not  teachers  be 
102 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT 

cognizant  of  the  advantages  thus  gained  and 
conduct  their  work  accordingly? 

Many  factors  in  school  management  can  be 
relegated  to  the  realm  of  mechanical  routine. 
Activities  that  are  performed  at  a  specified  time 
each  day,  that  have  always  the  same  specific 
purpose,  that  by  their  very  nature  would  pro- 
vide no  opportunity  for  individual  initiative, 
should  be  carefully  considered  and  the  most 
mechanical  means  of  procedure  should  be  dis- 
covered. We  find  certain  elements  in  this  cate- 
gory, such  as  the  passing  of  classes,  passing  of 
class  to  the  board,  distributing  supplies,  fire 
drills,  etc.  It  requires  careful  discrimination  in 
the  type  of  activity,  as  teachers  sometimes  have 
a  habitual  routine  for  activities  that  ought  never 
to  be  on  this  basis,  for  example,  calling  on  pupils, 
conducting  morning  exercises,  etc.  The  perform- 
ance of  any  task  that  demands  the  will  of  the 
group  acting  as  a  unit  should  be  reduced  to  the 
basis  of  routine,  and  tasks  that  give  opportunity 
for  individual  initiative  should  never  be  placed  on 
this  basis. 

The  discipline  of  a  school  is  conditioned  by 

good  management.    If  the  teacher  is  skillful  in 

managing  his  class,  the  problem  of  discipline 

means  that  all  pupils  are  conscious  of  the  purpose 

103 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

of  the  school,  that  all  are  working  to  attain  this 
end;  it  means  harmony  of  action,  respect  for  the 
rights  of  others,  cooperation  in  community  tasks, 
and  interest  in  the  part  the  individual  plays.  If 
this  is  not  the  attitude  in  a  school,  the  reason  for 
its  failure  should  be  investigated  and  the  means 
that  the  teacher  uses  to  overcome  the  obstacles 
in  the  way  should  be  noted. 

A  teacher  who  is  a  careless  housekeeper  rarely 
has  the  most  potent  influence  on  those  instructed. 
We  know  the  moral  influence  of  a  well-kept 
home,  and  this  is  as  applicable  in  the  school.  The 
failure  of  a  teacher  to  be  a  careful  housekeeper  is 
obvious  in  a  casual  survey,  for  one  cannot  cover 
the  evidence  of  an  untidy  room,  poorly  kept  sup- 
plementary material,  torn  books,  broken  furni- 
ture, and  marred  desks.  An  orderly,  well-kept 
room  is  indicative  of  the  habits  of  the  one  who  is 
in  charge. 

A  large  amount  of  time  is  wasted  in  our  school- 
rooms. No  institution,  unless  it  is  the  church,  is 
so  prodigal  of  time.  There  is  an  historic  reason 
why  this  is  the  case,  but  it  is  no  reason  for  its 
continuance  in  modern  civilization.  The  school  is 
bound  to  be  judged  by  its  products,  by  the  habits 
it  inculcates  in  those  it  trains,  and  by  their  effi- 
ciency in  the  world  of  men  and  affairs.  When 
104 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT 

the  cry  is  "Efficiency  "in  the  business  world,  the 
school  cannot  afford  to  ignore  this  conception  in 
its  own  organization.  In  viewing  the  conduct  of 
a  school,  we  should  note  where  time  is  wasted.  A 
few  places  where  time  can  be  economized  are 
mentioned  in  the  outline;  one  should  also  note 
means  employed  that  conserve  energy,  facilitate 
rapid  movement,  and  profitably  utilize  otherwise 
wasted  time. 

The  program  is  another  evidence  of  a  teacher's 
efficiency  in  management.  The  program  rep- 
resents the  teacher's  systematic  plan  for  con- 
ducting the  day's  work,  and  it  is  a  good  indica- 
tion as  to  his  knowledge  of  both  the  nature  of  the 
subjects  and  the  psychology  of  fatigue;  that  is,  if 
the  teacher  is  given  the  responsibility  for  con- 
structing his  program.  A  program  that  places  in 
succession  the  subjects  that  require  much  work 
with  the  hands  would  be  undesirable.  Again,  a 
program  that  requires  intense  mental  application 
for  a  long  period  of  time  is  faulty.  It  has  been 
found  that  short  periods  of  drill  at  more  frequent 
intervals  are  more  efficacious  than  long  periods 
less  frequent;  one  should  note  this  provision  in 
looking  at  a  program. 


105 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 
OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

CLASS  MANAGEMENT 

*  I.  ROUTINE  FACTORS. 

1.  The  passing  of  classes  at  recess,  dismissal,  etc. 

2.  The  passing  of  class  to  board. 

3.  The  passing  of  supplies. 

4.  Other  matters  of  routine. 

5.  Emphasis  on  this  factor. 

6.  Situations  that  ought  not  to  be  on  this  basis. 

n.  DISCIPLINE. 

1.  Attitude  of  the  children. 

2.  Disorder.  Attention  given  to  it. 

3.  Methods  of  securing  order. 

4.  Standards  of  conduct. 

m.  HOUSEKEEPING. 

1.  Condition  of  the  room. 

2.  Location  of  material. 

3.  Condition  of  material. 

IV.  WASTE  IN  MANAGEMENT. 

1.  The  accessibility  of  needed  material. 

2.  Preparation  for  using  supplementary  material. 

3.  Time  wasted  calling  classes. 

4.  Time  wasted  due  to  failure  to  mechanize  routine. 

5.  Time  wasted  due  to  lack  of  preparation. 

V.  PROGRAM. 

1.  A  systematic  plan  for  the  entire  day. 

2.  Order  of  subjects. 

3.  Apportionment  of  time. 

4.  Study  periods. 

5.  Recreation  periods. 

6.  Program  rigidly  followed.1 


XIII 

THE  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE 
SCHOOLROOM 

WHEN  one  visits  a  classroom,  the  element  that 
commands  attention  next  to  pupils  and  teacher 
is  the  physical  features,  the  hygienic  conditions, 
the  sanitary  arrangements  of  the  building.  How- 
ever, the  importance  of  this  factor  is  rarely  ap- 
preciated. The  science  of  school  architecture, 
decoration,  and  sanitation  is  in  its  infancy.  Until 
recently  little  thought  has  been  given  to  the  con- 
struction of  school  building  either  from  a  prac- 
tical or  an  aesthetic  point  of  view.  The  architect 
who  could  plan  a  comfortable  dwelling-house  was 
considered  wholly  competent  to  direct  the  con- 
struction of  a  school  building,  and  the  results  of 
this  are  the  monstrosities  that  we  find  in  many 
cities,  labeled  school  buildings.  It  is  a  healthful 
sign  to  find  reputable  architects  specializing  in 
school  construction.  People  are  beginning  to  ap- 
preciate the  fact  that  school  buildings  should  be 
artistic  and  practical;  that  they  are  measures  of 
the  community's  ideals;  that  they  should  be  the 
107 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

center  of  public  life;  that  they  should  be  utilized 
during  all  the  working  hours  and  not  merely  dur- 
ing a  brief  period  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Stand- 
ard units  are  being  developed  for  the  construc- 
tion of  school  buildings  and  schoolrooms,  and 
teachers  should  be  familiar  with  these  units. 
When  a  room  is  entered,  they  should  have  a 
standard  in  mind  in  order  that  they  may  be  able 
to  judge  intelligently  the  conditions  of  the  room 
in  respect  to  light,  heat,  ventilation,  seating, 
decoration,  equipment,  and  accessories.  It  is  not 
the  purpose  here  to  discuss  minutely  the  stand- 
ards that  should  be  followed  in  the  construction 
of  buildings  and  rooms;  the  purpose  is  rather  to 
make  the  problem  conscious  in  the  minds  of  peo- 
ple visiting  schools.  There  is  considerable  litera- 
ture on  school  hygiene  which  should  be  familiar 
to  all  teachers. 

Many  of  the  physical  features  of  a  schoolroom 
are  beyond  the  control  of  the  teacher.  When  the 
problem  is  carefully  analyzed,  however,  it  is  seen 
that  many  of  them  may  be  remedied,  if  not 
changed.  The  teacher  has  no  control  over  the 
length,  breadth,  or  height  of  his  room,  neither  has 
he  over  the  window  space,  but  if  the  light  is  de- 
ficient it  is  within  his  power  to  have  the  shades 
adjusted  and  seats  so  arranged  that  the  light 
108 


THE  SCHOOLROOM 

is  most  advantageously  distributed.  How  often 
are  teachers  prone  to  complain  of  poorly  lighted 
rooms  without  using  the  means  under  their  con- 
trol to  better  conditions.  Only  recently  have 
buildings  been  erected  to  furnish  light  that  is 
adequately  distributed  over  the  entire  space.  In 
some  buildings  teachers  through  concerted  effort 
have  been  able  to  have  changes  made,  but  as  yet 
there  is  a  woeful  lack  of  attention  given  to  this 
important  factor. 

Schoolrooms  both  with  and  without  mechani- 
cal systems  of  ventilation  are  frequently  poorly 
ventilated  because  in  those  with  good  systems 
the  windows  are  opened,  and  in  those  without, 
the  windows  are  kept  closed.  If  ventilation  must 
be  by  the  direct  method,  teachers  should  devise 
a  plan  whereby  the  air  can  be  constantly  changed; 
if  by  a  mechanical  system,  they  should  under- 
stand the  principle  of  its  construction  in  order 
that  they  may  not  do  anything  to  interfere  with 
its  efficiency.  Most  engineers  in  school  buildings 
where  the  ventilating  system  is  adequate  com- 
plain about  the  lack  of  cooperation  on  the  part 
of  teachers,  due  to  their  ignorance  as  to  the  work- 
ing of  the  system.  Teachers  in  training  need  to 
be  taught  the  essential  facts  in  regard  to  venti- 
lation in  order  that  they  may  understand  that 
109 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

raising  a  window  may  be  a  handicap  as  well  as  a 
help  to  the  proper  ventilation  of  a  schoolroom. 

-Adjustable  desks  are  helping  to  lessen  the 
problem  of  proper  position,  but,  like  opportu- 
nities, it  carries  responsibilities.  In  the  days  of 
wooden  benches,  none  of  which  fitted  any  pupils, 
the  teacher  had  no  problem  in  seating;  when 
the  desks  can  be  adjusted  to  each  pupil,  the 
teacher  must  be  constantly  on  the  alert  to  see 
that  each  child  has  a  seat  properly  adjusted. 
Rapid  growth  on  the  part  of  the  child  will  mean 
two  or  three  adjustments  of  his  seat  during  a 
school  year,  so  that  although  the  adjustments 
are  perfect  in  September  they  may  not  be  in 
June.  Attention  should  be  given  not  only  to  the 
adjustment  of  the  height,  but  also  to  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  relation  of  seat  and  desk.  Most 
authorities  at  the  present  time  seem  to  agree  that 
they  should  be  at  two  inch  minus. 

Schoolroom  decoration  furnishes  an  opportu- 
nity for  a  teacher  to  develop  the  aesthetic  sense  of 
his  pupils.  The  finish  of  the  woodwork  is  usually 
fixed  by  authority  other  than  the  teacher,  but 
pictures,  hangings,  and  artistic  arrangements  of 
these  transform  a  barren,  desolate,  unadorned 
schoolroom  into  an  attractive,  bright,  homelike 
place.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  pleasing  effects 
no 


THE  SCHOOLROOM 

that  some  teachers  are  able  to  secure  with  simple, 
inexpensive  material.  The  influence  of  the  teacher 
is  often  portrayed  by  the  appearance  of  his  room. 
The  furnishings  of  the  room  bear  a  mute  testi- 
mony to  the  character  of  the  citizenship  of  the 
city  or  district.  Were  this  appreciated  in  many  of 
our  American  communities,  it  would  mean  more 
artistic  school  buildings.  The  moral  atmosphere 
is  oftentimes  affected  by  the  physical  surround- 
ings. Filthy  desks,  floors,  coat-rooms,  and  toilets 
are  debasing  in  their  influence.  The  defaced  con- 
dition of  many  school  buildings  encourages  van- 
dalism, destroys  respect  for  public  property,  and 
makes  it  difficult  to  inculcate  desirable  standards 
of  conduct.  A  boy  or  girl  who  is  surrounded  by 
such  conditions  does  not  have  a  great  incentive 
to  be  neat  and  orderly  about  his  person  or  in  his 
work.  The  pernicious  influence  of  the  vulgar  and 
obscene  material  inscribed  about  many  school 
buildings  is  known  to  most  experienced  teachers. 
The  ideals  of  a  school  can  often  be  measured 
by  the  equipment  that  is  furnished.  Maps, 
globes,  blackboards  are  as  essential  to  proper 
instruction  as  are  a  teacher  and  a  textbook.  In 
cities  where  children  are  required  to  provide  their 
own  textbooks,  there  is  oftentimes  a  woeful  lack 
of  supplementary  and  illustrative  material.  It 
in 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

seems  at  times  as  though  the  cities  that  furnish 
free  textbooks  are  more  cognizant  of  the  neces- 
sity of  supplementary  aids.  However,  it  would 
be  unjust  to  make  this  statement  as  a  generaliza- 
tion. A  teacher  in  visiting  a  school  should  have 
clearly  in  mind  the  equipment  that  is  necessary 
for  the  most  effective  work,  and  this  should  be 
used  as  one  of  the  elements  in  forming  his  entire 
judgment. 

The  accessories  of  a  schoolroom  are  important 
factors  in  furnishing  proper  conditions  for  the 
most  effective  work.  The  coat-room  should  be  eas- 
ily accessible  from  the  room,  but  from  no  other 
source,  in  order  that  it  can  be  under  the  immedi- 
ate supervision  of  the  teacher.  It  should  be  prop- 
erly ventilated  and  sufficiently  spacious  so  that 
each  child  has  his  own  place  hi  which  to  put  his 
belongings.  In  our  modern  schools  the  common 
drinking  cup  has  been  abolished.  This  has  been 
due  as  often  to  state  laws  as  to  the  desire  of  the 
community  to  have  proper  sanitary  conditions. 
In  our  modern  school  buildings  sanitary  toilets 
are  found,  and  under  efficient  administration 
they  are  kept  sanitary.  Lunch-rooms  are  pro- 
vided in  many  schools  where  conditions  do  not 
make  it  feasible  for  the  pupils  to  return  home  for 
the  noonday  meal.  This  is  rare  in  elementary 
112 


THE  SCHOOLROOM 

schools  in  cities,  but  is  very  essential  in  nearly 
all  country  and  high  schools. 

There  is  no  excuse  whatever  for  finding  a  school 
building  unclean.  No  matter  if  the  building  does 
not  provide  adequate  light,  heat,  or  ventilation; 
no  matter  if  it  has  seats  that  cannot  be  adjusted; 
no  matter  if  no  attention  has  been  given  to  aes- 
thetic effects;  no  matter  if  the  equipment  is  in- 
adequate—  this  is  no  justification  for  filth.  It 
costs  very  little  to  keep  clean,  and  there  are  no 
factors  more  conducive  to  good  health  than  clean- 
liness and  ventilation.  A  school  should  be  se- 
verely criticized  if  it  does  not  have  a  sufficient 
force  of  janitors  to  keep  it  clean. 

OUTLINE  AID  TO  OBSERVATION 

THE  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE 
SCHOOLROOM 

I.  BUILDING. 

1.  Type. 

2.  Age. 

3.  Site. 

4.  Entrances. 

5.  Materials  of  construction. 

6.  Stairways. 

7.  Corridors. 

8.  Number  of  rooms. 

"3 


THE  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

II.  ROOMS. 

1.  Size. 

a.  Length. 

b.  Breadth. 

c.  Height. 

d.  Relation  to  standard  proportion. 

2.  Light. 

a.  Number  of  windows. 

b.  Location  of  windows. 

c.  Proportion  of  window  area  to  floor  area. 

d.  Kind  and  color  of  window  shades. 

e.  Provision  for  artificial  light. 
/.  Criticisms  on  condition. 

3.  Seats. 

a.  Number. 

b.  Type. 

(1)  Adjustable  or  non-adjustable. 

(2)  Stationary  or  movable. 

(3)  Adjusted  to  pupils. 

c.  Width  and  number  of  aisles. 

d .  Arrangement  in  respect  to  light. 

e.  Condition. 

HI.  HEAT. 

1.  Kind. 

2.  Amount  —  how  determined. 

3.  Regulation. 

IV.  VENTILATION. 

1.  Means. 

2.  Size  and  position  of  intake  and  outlet. 

3.  Why  adequate  or  inadequate. 

4.  Apparent  condition  of  air.       ^ 

114 


THE  SCHOOLROOM 

V.  DECORATION. 

1.  Kind  of  woodwork. 

2.  Finish  of  woodwork. 

3.  Color  of  walls  and  ceiling. 

4.  Pictures  and  statuary. 

5.  Attempts  to  make  room  homelike. 

VI.  CLEANLINESS. 

1.  Floors. 

2.  Desks. 

3.  Blackboard. 

4.  Erasers. 

5.  Books. 

6.  Walls. 

7.  Halls. 

VII.  EQUIPMENT. 

1.  Cabinets. 

2.  Blackboards. 

3.  Maps,  globes,  etc. 

4.  Chairs. 

5.  Illustrative  material;  e.g.,  specimens,  books, 
etc. 

VIII.  ACCESSORIES. 

1.  Coat-rooms. 

2.  Toilets. 

3.  Drinking-water. 

4.  Lunch-room. 

5.  Location  of  each  in  respect  to  schoolrooms. 

6.  Desirability  of  location. 


OUTLINE 

I.  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

1.  Knowledge  rests  on  skilled  observation i 

2.  Observation  as  practical  professional  study 3 

3.  The  need  for  thoughtful  and  well-organized  ob- 
servation         4 

4.  Relation  of  observation  of  practice  to  theoretical 
study 6 

II.  THE  PURPOSE  OF  OBSERVATION 

1.  Interest  in  the  observation  of  skill 9 

2.  The  complexity  of  teaching  skill 10 

3.  The  attitude  of  the  observer n 

a.  The  supervisor 12 

b.  The  visiting  teacher 14 

c.  The  teacher  in  training 16 

III.  THE  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION 

1.  Observation  reveals  the  actual  teaching  situa- 
tion       19 

2.  It  furnishes  an  objective  basis  for  imitation. ...     21 

3.  It  offers  a  standard  for  self -judgment 23 

4.  It  provides  concrete  examples  of  the  proper  psy- 
chological organization  of  subject-matter 24 

5.  Observation  reveals  the  actual  responses  of  chil- 
dren       27 

6.  It  shows  how  theoretical  principles  are  realized    29 

7.  It  focuses  attention  on  the  social  forces  at  work 

in  the  school  life 1 31 

117 


OUTLINE 


IV.  THE  TEACHER 

1.  Personal  characteristics 33 

2.  Teaching  ability. 37 

3.  Social  efficiency 40 

4.  Outline  aid  to  observation 41 

V.  THE  PUPILS 

1.  Adaptation  to  age  and  grade 44 

2.  What  the  appearance  of  a  class  indicates 45 

3.  Numbers  and  efficiency 46 

4.  Types  and  their  responses 47 

5.  Attitude  toward  the  teacher 49 

6.  Outline  aid  to  observation 49 

VI.  THE  LESSON  PROCEDURE 

1.  Aims  in  teaching 51 

2.  The  analysis  of  lesson  types 53 

3.  The  approach 55 

4.  The  presentation 56 

5.  The  assignment 61 

6.  Outline  aid  to  observation 63 

VII.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  LESSON 

1.  The  character  of  the  development  lesson 66 

2.  The  inductive  type 67 

3.  The  deductive  type 68 

4.  The  informal  type 69 

5.  Outline  aid  to  observation 71 

VIII.  THE  DRILL  LESSON 

1.  The  purpose  of  drill 73 

2.  Motivation 74 

1x8 


OUTLINE 

3.  Devices 74 

4.  Presentation 75 

5.  Outline  aid  to  observation 76 

IX.  THE  REVIEW  LESSON 

1.  The  purpose  of  the  review 78 

2.  Final  organization  as  a  standard  in  review 79 

3.  Typical  methods  of  review 79 

4.  Outline  aid  to  observation 82 

X.  THE  LESSON  FOR  APPRECIATION 

1.  The  purpose  of  the  appreciation  lesson 84 

2.  Intellectual  appreciations 84 

3.  Social  appreciations 85 

4.  ./Esthetic  appreciations 86 

5.  Essentials  in  method 87 

6.  Outline  aid  to  observation 90 

XI.  QUESTIONING 

1.  The  value  of  good  questioning 91 

2.  The  various  uses  of  questioning 94 

3.  The  modes  of  questioning 98 

4.  Outline  aid  to  observation 101 

XII.  CLASS  MANAGEMENT 

1.  The  realm  of  school  management 102 

2.  Effective  management  conditions  discipline 103 

3.  Standards  of  good  housekeeping 104 

4.  Waste  in  management 104 

5.  The  school  program  and  schedule 105 

6.  Outline  aid  to  observation  . .                   106 


119 


OUTLINE 

XIII.    THE  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE 
SCHOOLROOM 

1.  The  growing  importance  of  school  construction, 
sanitation,  and  decoration 107 

2.  Elements  within  the  control  of  the  teacher 108 

3-  Light 108 

4.  Ventilation 109 

5.  Adjustable  seats  and  desks no 

6.  Decoration no 

7.  Equipment in 

8.  Accessories 112 

9.  Cleanliness 113 

10.  Outline  aid  to  observation 113 


~ 


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^rtflSTuMN 

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